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PAPERS ON INTER-RACIAL PROBLEMS

[In English only] A RECORD OF THE PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

FIRST UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

HELD AT

THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON JULY 26 TO 29, 1911

LONDON

P. S. KING & SON 1911

PAPERS

ON

INTER-RACIAL PROBLEMS

COMMUNICATED TO THE

FIRST UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

HELD AT

THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON

JULY 26-29, 1911

EDITED, FOR THE CONGRESS EXECUTIVE, BY

G. SPILLER

HON. ORGANISER OF THE CONGRESS

LONDON

P. S. KING & SON ORCHARD HOUSE, WESTMINSTER

BOSTON, U.S.A.

THE WORLD'S PEACE FOUNDATION

29A, BEACON STREET

I9II

1AI Al

8M3

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1099594

Cet ouvrage est public simultantment en fran$ais et en anglais par MESSRS. P. S. KING <&* SON.

PREFACE

THE object of the Congress is " to discuss, in the light of science and the modern conscience, the general relations subsisting between the peoples of the West and those of the East, between so-called white and so-called coloured peoples, with a view to encouraging between them a fuller understanding, the most friendly feelings, and a heartier co-operation."

The writers of papers were requested to keep in view the spirit of this object ; but were otherwise not supplied with, or bound by, any instructions. Accordingly, it would have been natural to find the widest differences of opinion expressed in the following contributions. Singular to stater however, the writers — coming literally from all parts of the circumference of the globe — manifest a remarkable agree- ment on almost every vital problem with which the Congress is concerned, and support, as a whole, a view which must be very encouraging to those in every land who see a brother and an equal, at least potentially, in every human beingr whatever the colour of his skin. In view of the eminent fitness of the writers to pronounce judgment on the issues involved in the contact of races, the Congress may be said to have effectively served both a scientific and a humanitarian purpose. Henceforth it should not be difficult to answer those who allege that their own race towers far above all other races, and that therefore other races must cheerfully submit to being treated, or mal-treated, as hewers of wood and drawers of water. The writers have, as it were, reduced to reasoned statements the generous sentiments prevailing on this subject among the most cultivated and responsible section of humanity, a section fairly represented in our imposing list of Vice-Presidents, Hon. Vice-Presidents, and Members of the Hon. General Committee.

It was felt that in a Congress of this comprehensive character each people should speak for itself; and it is for thisj reason that every paper referring to an Oriental people

vi PREFACE

will be found written by an eminent person belonging to it. Thus the Occidental reader of this volume has the unpre- cedented opportunity of learning what Oriental scholars think of the contact of races. It is to be hoped that at the Second Universal Races Congress a much larger number of the general and scientific papers will come from Oriental sources.

The particular opinions expressed by the writers in this volume are personal, and do not in any way commit the members of the Congress. The organisers adhere to their original statement that " whilst wholly sympathetic towards all far-sighted measures calculated to strengthen and promote good relations, the Congress is pledged to no political party and to no particular scheme of reforms." To this should be added, in order to prevent possible misunder- standings, that the contributors speak in their individual capacity, and not as official representatives. These neces- sary limitations, however, do not detract from the signifi- cance and importance of the contributions embodied in this volume.

The Executive Council takes this opportunity of expressing its deep gratitude to the many writers of papers who have contributed to the value and success of the Con- gress by putting at its disposal their rich stores of knowledge and experience. It desires also to acknowledge the valuable services rendered by the translators, Mrs. Boyce Gibson and Mr. Joseph McCabe. And, last but not least, the Executive cannot forbear tendering its sincerest thanks to the Senate of the University of London for having generously granted the free use of halls and rooms for the meetings of the Congress.

INTRODUCTION

To those who regard the furtherance of International Good Will and Peace as the highest of all human interests, the occasion of the First Universal Races Congress opens a vista of almost boundless promise.

No impartial student of history can deny that in the case of nearly all recorded wars, whatever the ostensible reasons assigned, the underlying cause of conflict has been the exist- ence of race antipathies — using the word race in its broad and popular acceptation — which particular circumstances, often in themselves of trivial moment, have fanned into flame.

In the earliest times it took the form of one race attempt- ing to subjugate and indeed enslave another ; but even in modern wars, while questions of frontier, the ambitions of rulers, or the rivalries of commercial policies, may have provoked the actual crisis, it will be found, in almost every instance, that the pre-existence of social and racial enmity has in reality determined the breach which particular inci- dents had merely precipitated.

As civilisation progresses and the Western world more fully recognises its ethical responsibilities, it may be hoped that such influences will become an ever-diminishing force ; but the modern conscience has to-day, in addition, other and quite new problems to solve in face of the startling and sudden appearance of new factors in the Eastern Hemi- sphere.

In less than twenty years we have witnessed the most remarkable awakening of nations long regarded as sunk in such ~ depths of somnolence as to be only interesting

vii

viii INTRODUCTION

to the Western world because they presented a wide and prolific field for commercial rivalries, often greedy, cruel, and fraught with bloodshed in their prosecution, but which otherwise were an almost negligible quantity in international concerns.

How great is the change in the life-time of a single generation, when, to select two instances alone, we contem- plate the most remarkable rise of the power of the Empire of Japan, the precursor, it would seem, of a similar revival of the activities and highly developed qualities of the population of the great Empire of China!

Nearer and nearer we see approaching the day when the vast populations of the East will assert their claim to meet on terms of equality the nations of the West, when the free institutions and the organised forces of the one hemisphere will have their counterbalance in the other, when their mental outlook and their social aims will be in principle identical ; when, in short, the colour prejudice will have vanished and the so-called white races and the so-called coloured races shall no longer merely meet in the glowing periods of missionary exposition, but, in very fact, regard one another as in truth men and brothers.

Are we ready for this change? Have we duly considered all that it signifies, and have we tutored our minds and shaped our policy with a view of successfully meeting the coming flood ? It is in order to discuss this question of such supreme importance that the First Universal Races Congress is being held. The papers, so varied in their scope and treatment, which have been communicated by individuals of eminence from many distant lands, will testify to the world- wide interest which the examination of these grave problems has aroused, the wise handling of which would remove dangers and possible causes of strife which, but for skilled guidance, might conceivably convulse mankind.

WEARDALE.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

CIRCULARS ISSUED BY THE CONGRESS EXECUTIVE . xiii

OFFICERS, EXECUTIVE, HON. VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND

HON. GENERAL COMMITTEE. xvii

FIRST SESSION FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

> LEANING OF RACE, TRIBE, NATION. By Dr. Brajendranath Seal . i

4- ANTHROPOLOGICAL VIEW OF RACE. By Prof. Felix v. Luschan . 13 RACE FROM THE SOCIOLOGICAL STANDPOINT. By Prof. Alfred

Fouillee ........... 24

PROBLEM OF RACE EQUALITY. By G. Spiller . . . / 29

SECOND SESSION

CONDITIONS OF PROGRESS (GENERAL PROBLEMS)

THE RATIONALE OF AUTONOMY. By John M. Robertson . . 40 INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHIC, ECONOMIC, AND POLITICAL CON-

DITIONS. By Prof. P. S. Reinsch ...... 49

LANGUAGE AS A CONSOLIDATING AND SEPARATING INFLUENCE.

By Prof. D. S. Margoliouth ....... 57

RELIGION AS A CONSOLIDATING AND SEPARATING INFLUENCE. By

Prof. T. W. Rhys Davids and Mrs. Rhys Davids ... 62 DIFFERENCES IN CUSTOMS AND MORALS AND THEIR RESISTANCE

TO RAPID CHANGE. By Prof. Giuseppe Sergi .... 67 ON THE PERMANENCE OF RACIAL MENTAL DIFFERENCES. By

Prof. Charles S. Myers ........ 73

THE INTELLECTUAL STANDING OF DIFFERENT RACES AND THEIR

RESPECTIVE OPPORTUNITIES FOR CULTURE. By John Gray . 79

x TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

THE PRESENT POSITION OF WOMAN. By Sister Nivedita (Miss

Margaret Noble) 86

INSTABILITY OF HUMAN TYPES. By Prof. Franz Boas ... 99

CLIMATIC CONTROL OF SKIN-COLOUR. By Prof. Lionel W. Lyde . 104

THE EFFECTS OF RACIAL MISCEGENATION. By Prof. Earl Finch . 108

THIRD SESSION

CONDITIONS OF PROGRESS (SPECIAL PROBLEMS)

TENDENCIES TOWARDS PARLIAMENTARY RULE. By Dr. Chr.

L. Lange 113

CHINA. By Dr. Wu Ting- Fang 123

JAPAN. By Profs. Tongo Takebe and Teruaki Kobayashi . .132

SHINTOISM. By Prof. Genchi Kato 141

TURKEY. See Appendix

PERSIA. By Hadji Mirza Yahya 143

THE BAHAI MOVEMENT. Letter to the Congress by 'Abdu'l Baha

'Abbas iS^f

EAST AND WEST IN INDIA. By the Hon. G. K. Gokhale . . 157

EGYPT. By Moh. Sourour Bey 167

SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE PEOPLE AND THE

GOVERNMENT OF HAITI. By General Legitime . . . 178

HUNGARY. By Prof. Akos de Timon 184

THE ROLE OF RUSSIA IN THE MUTUAL APPROACH OF THE WEST

AND THE EAST. By Prof. Alexander Yastchenko . . . 195

FOURTH SESSION I. SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN INTER-RACIAL ECONOMICS

INVESTMENTS AND LOANS. By Prof. A. de Navratil . . . 208 WAGES AND IMMIGRATION. By Fred C. Croxton and W. Jett Lauck 211 OPENING OF MARKETS AND COUNTRIES. By John A. Hobson . 222

II. PEACEFUL CONTACT BETWEEN CIVILISATIONS SCIENCE AND ART, LITERATURE AND THE PRESS. By Prof.

Ferdinand Tonnies 233

THE WORK DONE BY PRIVATE INITIATIVE IN THE ORGANISATION

OF THE WORLD. By Prof. H. La Fontaine .... 243 THE INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE AT ROME. By

David Lubin . 254

THE BATAK INSTITUTE AT LEYDEN. By Prof. A. W. Nieuwenhuis . 259

TABLE OF CONTENTS xi

FIFTH SESSION

THE MODERN CONSCIENCE IN RELATION TO RACIAL QUESTIONS (GENERAL)

PACK

THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF INTER-RACIAL ETHICS, AND

SOME PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF IT. By Prof. Felix Adler . 261

THE JEWISH RACE. By Israel Zangwill 268

THE MODERN CONSCIENCE IN RELATION TO THE TREATMENT OF DEPENDENT PEOPLES AND COMMUNITIES. By Sir Charles Bruce 279

THE GOVERNMENT OF COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES. By Sir

Sydney Olivier 293

THE INFLUENCE OF MISSIONS. By Prof. Alfred Caldecott . . 302

INDENTURED AND FORCED LABOUR. By the late the Right Hon.

Sir Charles W. Dilke 312

Supplement, by Joseph Burtt, Matlock .... 323

TRAFFIC IN INTOXICANTS AND OPIUM. By Dr. J. H. Abendanon . 324

SIXTH SESSION

THE MODERN CONSCIENCE IN RELATION TO

RACIAL QUESTIONS (THE NEGRO AND THE

AMERICAN INDIAN)

THE WORLD-POSITION OF THE NEGRO AND NEGROID. By Sir

Harry H. Johnston 328

NATIVE RACES OF SOUTH AFRICA. By J. Tengo Jabavu . . 336 THE WEST AFRICAN PROBLEM. By Dr. Mojola Agbebi . . 341 THE NEGRO RACE IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. By Dr.

W. E. B. DuBois 348

THE NEGRO PROBLEM IN RELATION TO WHITE WOMEN. By

Dr. Frances Hoggan 364

THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN. By Dr. Charles A. Eastman . 367 THE METIS, OR HALF-BREEDS, OF BRAZIL. By Dr. Jean Baptiste

de Lacerda 377

SEVENTH SESSION

POSITIVE SUGGESTIONS FOR PROMOTING INTER-RACIAL FRIENDLINESS

THE RESPECT WHICH THE WHITE RACE OWES TO OTHER ^x RACES. By Baron d'Estournelles de Constant . . . 383

xii TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

INTERNATIONAL LAW, TREATIES, CONFERENCES, AND THE HAGUE

TRIBUNAL. By Prof. Walther Schiicking .... 387 INTERNATIONAL LAW AND SUBJECT RACES. By Sir John Macdonell 398 PERIODICAL PEACE CONFERENCES. By Jarousse de Sillac . . 409 LETTER FROM M. LEON BOURGEOIS. See APPENDIX.

EIGHTH SESSION

POSITIVE SUGGESTIONS FOR PROMOTING INTER-RACIAL FRIENDLINESS (continued)

THE PRESS AS AN INSTRUMENT OF PEACE. By Alfred H, Fried . 420

INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE. By Dr. L. L. Zamenhof . . . 425 ETHICAL TEACHING IN SCHOOLS WITH REGARD TO RACES. By

Dr. J. S. Mackenzie 433

THE COSMOPOLITAN CLUB MOVEMENT. By Louis P. Lochner . 439 INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION FOR INTER-RACIAL GOODWILL. By

Edwin D. Mead 443

APPENDIX- TURKEY. By Dr. Riza Tevfik .... . . 454

LETTER FROM M. LEON BOURGEOIS ... . 462

BIBLIOGRAPHY .463

INDEX . . 478

CIRCULARS ISSUED BY THE EXECUTIVE

COUNCIL

I. INVITATION

A CONGRESS dealing with the general relations subsisting between West and East will be held in London from July 26 to July 29, 1911. So far as possible special treatment will be accorded to the problem of the contact of European with other developed types of civilisation, such as the Chinese, Japanese, Indian, Turkish, and Persian. The official Congress languages are to be English, French, German, and Italian ; but Oriental and other languages will not be rigidly excluded. The papers (which will be taken as read) are to appear, collected in volume form, both in an all-English and an all- French edition, about a month before the Congress opens, and among the contributors will be found eminent representatives of more than twenty civilisations. All schools of thought which sympathise with the Object of the Congress are hereby invited to take part in the proceedings. Resolutions of a political character will not be submitted.

II. OBJECT AND NATURE OF THE CONGRESS

THE object of the Congress will be to discuss, in the light of science and the modern conscience, the general relations subsisting between the peoples of the West and those of the East, between so-called white and so-called coloured peoples, with a view to encouraging between them a fuller under- standing, the most friendly feelings, and a heartier co-operation. Political issues of the hour will be subordinated to this compre- hensive end, in the firm belief that, when once mutual respect is established, difficulties of every type will be sympathetically approached and readily solved.

The origin of this Congress is easily explained. The interchange of material and other wealth between the different races of mankind has of late years assumed such dimensions that the old attitude of distrust and aloofness is giving way to a general desire for closer acquaintanceship. Out of this interesting situation has sprung

xiv OBJECT AND NATURE OF THE CONGRESS

the idea of holding a Congress where the representatives of the different races might meet each other face to face, and might, in friendly rivalry, further the cause of mutual trust and respect between Occident and Orient, between the so-called white peoples and the so- called coloured peoples.

Accordingly the Congress will not represent a meeting of all the races for the purpose of discussing indiscriminately everybody's con- cerns. It will not discuss purely European questions, such as the relations existing between or within the different European countries ; nor, of course, will it discuss the attitude of Europe towards the United States, or towards other American Republics representing races of European descent. Again, whilst wholly sympathetic towards all far-sighted measures calculated to strengthen and pro- mote good relations, the Congress is pledged to no political party and to no particular scheme of reforms. The writers of papers will, however, have the full right to express whatever political views they may hold, though they will be expected to do justice to all political parties and to treat the issues of the day only passingly. Furthermore, the Con- gress will not be purely scientific in the sense of only stating facts and not passing judgments. Nor will it be a peace congress in the sense of aiming specifically at the prevention of war. Finally, it should be noted that, since the Congress is to serve the purpose of bringing about healthier relations between Occident and Orient, all bitterness towards parties, peoples, or governments will be avoided, without, of course, excluding reasoned praise and blame. With the problem simplified in this manner, and with a limited number of papers written by leading authorities, there is every hope that the dis- cussions will bear a rich harvest of good, and contribute materially towards encouraging friendly feelings and hearty co-operation between the peoples of the West and the East.

III. QUESTIONNAIRE

(Replies to any or all the questions should reach the Hon. Sec. not later than June 15, 1911.)

I. (a) To what extent is it legitimate to argue from differences in physical characteristics to differences in mental characteristics ? (b) Do you consider that the physical and mental characteristics observable in a particular race are (i) permanent, (2) modifiable only through ages of environmental pressure, or (3) do you consider that marked changes in popular education, in public sentiment, and in environment generally, may, apart from intermarriage, materially

OBJECT AND NATURE OF THE CONGRESS xv

transform physical and especially mental characteristics in a generation or two ?

2. (a) To what extent does the status of a race at any particular moment of time offer an index to its innate, or inherited capacities ? (b) Of what importance is it in this respect that civilisations are meteoric in nature, bursting out of obscurity only to plunge back into it, and how would you explain this ?

3. (a) How would you combat the irreconcilable contentions prevalent among all the more important races of mankind that their customs, their civilisation, and their race are superior to those of other races ? (U) Would you, in explanation of existing differences, refer to special needs arising from peculiar geographical and economic conditions and to related divergences in national history; and, in explanation of the attitude assumed, would you refer to intimacy with one's own customs leading psychologically to a love of them and unfamiliarity with others' customs tending to lead psychologically to dislike and contempt of these latter ? (c) Or what other explanation and arguments would you offer?

4. (a) What part do differences in economic, hygienic, moral, and educational standards play in estranging races which come in contact with each other? (£) Is the ordinary observer to be informed that these differences, like social differences generally, are in substance almost certainly due to passing social conditions and not to innate racial characteristics, and that the aim should be, as in social differences, to remove these rather than to accentuate them by regarding them as fixed ?

5. (a) Is perhaps the deepest cause of race misunderstandings the tacit assumption that the present characteristics of a race are the expression of fixed and permanent racial characteristics ? (b) If so, could not anthropologists, sociologists, and scientific thinkers as a class, powerfully assist the movement for a juster appreciation of races by persistently pointing out in their lectures and in their works the fundamental fallacy involved in taking a static instead of a dynamic, a momentary instead of a historic, a local instead of a general, point of view of race characteristics ? (c) And could such dynamic teaching be conveniently introduced into schools, more especially in the geography and history lessons ; also into colleges for the training of teachers, diplomats, colonial administrators, and missionaries ?

6. (a) If you consider that the belief in racial superiority is not largely due, as is suggested by some of the above questions, to unen- lightened psychological repulsion and under-estimation of the dynamic or environmental factors, please state what, in your opinion, the chief factors are ? (b) Do you consider that there is fair proof,

xvi OBJECT AND NATURE OF THE CONGRESS

and if so what proof, of some races being substantially superior to others in inborn capacity, and in such case is the moral standard to be modified ?

7. (A) What is your attitude towards the suggestion (a) that, so far at least as intellectual and moral aptitudes are concerned, we ought to speak of civilisations where we now speak of races ? (b) that the stage or form of the civilisation of a people has no connection with its special inborn physical characteristics ? (c) and that even its physical characteristics are to no small extent the direct result of the environment, physical and social, under which it is living at the moment? (B) To aid in clearing up the conceptions of race and civilisation, how would you define these?

8. (a} Do you think that each race might with advantage study the customs and civilisations of other races, even those you think the lowliest ones, for the definite purpose of improving its own customs and civilisation ? (b) Do you think that unostentatious conduct generally and respect for the customs of other races, provided these are not morally objectionable, should be recommended to all who come in passing or permanent contact with members of other races ?

9. (a) Do you know of any experiments on a considerable scale, past or present, showing the successful uplifting of relatively back- ward races by the application of purely humane methods ? (b) Do you know of any cases of colonisation or opening of a country achieved by the same methods? (c] If so, how far do you think could such methods be applied universally in our dealings with other races ?

10. What proposals do you have (a) for the Congress effectively carrying out its object of encouraging better relations between East and West, and more particularly (b} for the formation of an associa- tion designed to promote inter-racial amity ?

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND SUPPORTERS.

President : The Right Hon. LORD WEARDALE

Vice-Presidents :

The Right Honourable THE PRIME MINISTER

The Right Hon. VISCOUNT MORLEY OF BLACKBURN

The Right Hon. LORD CURZON OF KEDLESTON

The Right Hon. LORD AVEBURY

The Right Honourable THE SPEAKER

The Right Hon. ARTHUR JAMES BALFOUR, M.P.

The Right Hon. JOHN BURNS, M.P.

The Right Hon. HERBERT SAMUEL, M.P.

J. RAMSAY MACDONALD, Esq., M.P.

The Right Hon. THE LORD MAYOR OF LONDON

His Grace THE ARCHBISHOP OF YORK The Very Reverend HERMANN ADLER

General BOOTH Rev. Prof. J. ESTLIN CARPENTER

EDWARD CLODD

Dr. STANTON COIT

FREDERIC HARRISON

The Rev. F. B. MEYER

Father BERNARD VAUGHAN, S.J.

The VICE-CHANCELLORS of the Universities of ABERDEEN, ST. ANDREWS,

BELFAST, BRISTOL, CAMBRIDGE, DUBLIN, DURHAM, IRELAND, LEEDS,

LIVERPOOL, LONDON, MANCHESTER, OXFORD, SHEFFIELD, and WALES

Chairman of Executive : The Hon. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES

Vice-Chairman of Executive :

Sir EDWARD BRABROOK

Chairman of Hon. General Committee : Prof. FELIX ADLER, New York

Viee-Chairmen of Hon. General Committee :

Prof. FELIX v. LUSCHAN, Berlin

Sir EDWARD H. BUSK, London

Baron D'ESTOURNELLES DE CONSTANT, Paris

His Highness PRINCE DE CASSANO, Rome

Director of Exhibition : Dr. ALFRED C. HADDON

Hon. Treasurer: Sir RICHARD BIDDULPH MARTIN, Bart.

Assistant Hon. Treasurer ; JOHN GRAY, Esq.

Hon. General Secretary : G. SPILLER, Esq., 63 South Hill Park, Hampstead, London

xviii UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

HON. SECRETARIES.

Argentina — M. V. O. DIARD, 253, Tucuari, Buenos Ayres.

Belgique — M. le Dr. E. WAXWEILER, Pare Leopold, Bruxelles.

Brdsil — M. le Dr. EDGARD R. PINTO, Museu Nacional, Rio de Janeiro.

Bulgarie — M. le Prof. ISCHIRKOFF, ub. Aksacoff 9, Sofia.

Central America — M. DESIRE PECTOR, 51 rue de Clichy, Paris.

Chili — M. le Dr. A. ALVAREZ, Santiago.

Costa Rica — M. le THEODORO PICADO, San Jose.

Deutschland — Herr Prof. FERD. TONNIES, Eutin, Holstein.

Egypt — B. L. MOSELY, Esq., 5 Sharia Kasr-el-Nil, Cairo.

Espafia — M. le Prof. GASCON Y MARIN, Coso 5, Saragoza.

Finland — Herr Prof. RAFAEL KARSTEN, Die Universitat, Helsingfors.

France — M. JEAN FINOT, 45 rue Jacob, Paris.

Grece — Dr. S. C. ZAVITZIANOS, Corfou.

India — Mr. JEHANGIR B. PETIT, 7/10 Elphinstone Circle, Bombay.

Italia — Principe de CASSANO, Corso Umberto I. 440, Rome.

Japan — Prof. K. YOSHIDA, Hakusangatenmachi no, Tokyo.

Magyarorszdg — Dir. F. KEMENY, Bulyovszky-utca 26, Budapest ; ARISTIDE DE DESSEWFFY, Kepviselohaz, Budapest.

Mexico— Sefior AGUSTIN ARAGON, 53 del Pino 215, Mexico.

Nederland—W. le Dr J. H. ABENDANON, Jan v. Nassaustr. 43, Den Haag.

Oesterreich — Herr WILHELM BORNER, I. Spiegelgasse 19, Wien.

Perou—M. le Prof. JOAQUIN CAPELO, Lima.

Perse — M. HADJI MIRZA YAHYA, Teheran.

Roumanie — M. MARC-A. JEANJAQUET, Boulev. Carol 5, Bucarest.

Serbie — M. le Prof. NOVAKOVITCH, Universit^, Belgrade.

South Africa — Rev. RAMSDEN BALMFORTH, Upper Camp Street, Cape Town .

United States— Dr. W. E. B. DuBois, 20 Vesey Street, New York ;

Rev. FREDERICK LYNCH, 13 E. i24th Street, New York.

West Indies— A. F. PALMER, Esq., Soufriere, St. Lucia.

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND SUPPORTERS xix

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL.

Chairman : THE HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES. Vice-Chairman : SIR EDWARD BRABROOK, C.B.

(The members of the Executive are drawn from all parties as befits a universal congress ; but the Executive as such does not stand or work for any party. )

The Rt. Hon. AMEER ALI, P.C., London.

Prof. T. W. ARNOLD, M.A. (Arabic, U. of London).

MIRZA ALI ABBAS BAIG, Member of Council of Secretary of State for India.

J. ALLEN BAKER, M.P., London.

HENRY BALFOUR, M.A., F.Z.S., Oxford, representing the African Society.

THOMAS BATY, D.C.L., LL.D., London.

Sir MANCHERJEE MERWANJEE BHOWNAGGREE, K.C.I. E., London.

Major SYED HASSAN BILGRAMI, I. M.S. (Retired), London.

WILFRID SCAWEN BLUNT, Southwater, Sussex.

OSCAR BROWNING, M.A., Senior Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.

Prof. J. B. BURY (History, U. of Cambridge).

Sir EDWARD H. BUSK, Chairman of Convocation and Past Vice-Chancellor of the University of London.

Rev. Prof. A. CALDECOTT, D.D., D.Lit., representing the University of London.

HOWARD D'EGVILLE, Barrister-at-Law, Secretary of the African Society, represent- ing the African Society.

JOHN ARTHUR FALLOWS, M.A., London.

Dr. CHARLES GARNETT, M.A., B.D., London.

Dr. M. GASTER, London, representing the Royal Asiatic Society.

Prof. PATRICK GEDDES, F.R.S.E. (Botany, U. College of Dund'ee).

JOHN GRAY, B.Sc., A.R.S.M., F.R.A.I., London (Hon. Assistant Treasurer].

K. G. GUPTA, London, Member of Council of Secretary of State for India.

Dr. B. GUTTMAN, Journalist, London.

Prof. ALFRED C. HADDON, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Ethnology, U. of Cambridge).

HALIL HALID, M.A. (Turkish, U. of Cambridge).

Prof. LEONARD T. HOBKOUSE (Sociology, U. of London).

JOHN ATKINSON HOBSON, M.A., London.

Sir HARRY JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., Poling, representing the Royal Geo- graphical Society.

T. A. JOYCE, M.A., London, Hon. Sec. Royal Anthropological Institute.

ARTHUR F. LAKE, Merchant, London.

DUNCAN CAMPBELL LEE, M.A., London.

Mrs. ARCHIBALD LITTLE, London, Author and Traveller.

ROBERT RANULPH MARETT, M.A., F.R.A.I., Oxford University.

Prof. D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, D.Lit. (Arabic, U. of Oxford).

Rev. F. B. MEYER, B.A., late President of National Federation of Free Churches.

JOHN E. MILHOLLAND (Hon. Treasurer for U.S.A.], New York and London.

Prof. J. H. MuiRHEAD, LL.D. (Philosophy, U. of Birmingham).

Prof. J. L. MYRES, M.A. F.S.A. (Ancient History, Oxford).

SHRIJUT BIPIN CHANDRA PAL, London.

R. H. PYE, F.R.A.I., London, representing the Royal Anthropological Institute.

S. K. RATCLIFFE, London, Secretary and representing the Sociological Society.

L. W. RITCH, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, London.

JOHN MACKINNON ROBERTSON, M.P., London.

Rev. Dr. ROSEDALE, London.

HARRY SNELL, London, Secretary Union of Ethical Societies.

WILLIAM T. STEAD, London, Editor of " Review of Reviews."

S. H. SWINNY, M.A., London, representing the Sociological Society.

MARY F. A. TENCH, F.R.A.I., London.

Major A. J. N. TREMEARNE, B.A. (Hausa, U. of Cambridge).

Major-General Sir ALFRED TURNER, K.C.B., London.

H. J. WELCH, Solicitor, London.

Prof. EDWARD WESTERMARCK (London U. and U. of Helsingfors).

J. MARTIN WHITE, J.P., London.

Sir JAMES WILSON, K.C.S.I., London.

xx UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

HON. VICE-PRESIDENTS.

7. Members of the Permanent Court of Arbitration and of the

Second Hague Conference. (At the time of acceptance — A la date d'adh^sion.)

Argentina— -M. ESTANISLAS S. ZEBALLOS, late Minister of State, Member of the Hague Court, Member of the Institut de Droit International, Professor of International Law. Austria— Prof. Dr. H. LAMMASCH, Member of both Hague Conferences,

Member of the Hague Court, Professor of International Law. Baron Dr. ERNEST DE PLENER, Senator, Councillor of State President of the Supreme Court of the Exchequer, Member of the Hague Court, Member of the Council of the Inter- Parliamentary Union.

Belgium— M. A. BEERNAERT, Deputy, Minister of State, late Prime

Minister, Member of the Hague Court and of both Hague Conferences,

President of the Inter- Parliamentary Union, Nobel Peace Prize, Hon.

Member of the Institute of International Law.

Le Baron GUILLAUME, Belgian Minister in Paris, Member of the Second

Hague Conference, Member of the Royal Academy of Roumania. M. ERNEST NYS, Judge at the Brussels Court of Appeal, Member of the

Hague Court, Professor of International Law.

Brazil— M. CLOVIS BEVILAQUA, Jurisconsult at the Foreign Office, Member

of the Hague Court, Member of the Brazilian Academy, Professor of Law.

M. EDUARDO F. S. DOS SANTOS LISBOA, Brazilian Minister at The

Hague, Member of the Second Hague Conference. M. LAFAYETTE RODRIGUES PEREIRA, late Prime Minister, Member

of the Hague Court.

Bulgaria— Dr. STOYAN DANEFF, late Prime Minister, late Minister for Foreign Affairs, Member of the Hague Court, late Professor at the University of Sophia. M. IVAN KARANDJOULOFF, Attorney General of the Bulgarian High

Court of Cassation, Member of the Second Hague Conference. Chile— Dr. ALEJANDRO ALVAREZ, Councillor at the Foreign Office,

Member of the Hague Court. Dr. MIGUEL CRUCHAGA, late Prime Minister, Chilian Minister at

Buenos-Ayres, Member of tlie Hague Court. tM. DOMINGO GANA, Minister of Chile in London, Member of the Second

Hague Conference. M. AUGUSTO MATTE, Minister of Chile in Berlin, Member of the Second

Hague Conference. China — M. WU TING- FANG, late Chinese Ambassador in Washington, late

Imperial Commissioner, Member of the Hague Court. M. LOU TSENG-TSIANG, Chinese Minister at The Hague, Member of the

Second Hague Conference. Colombia— H. PEREZ TRIANA, Minister of Colombia in London, Member of

the Second Hague Conference. Cuba— M.JUAN B. HERNANDES BARREIRO, President of the Supreme

Tribunal of the Republic, Member of the Hague Court. M. GONZALO DE QUESADA, Cuban Minister in Berlin, Member of

the Hague Court. Denmark— M. A. VEDEL, Sheriff for the county of Nestvest, Member of the

Second Hague Conference.

Dominican Republic— Dr. FRANCISCO HENRIQUEZ Y CARVAJAL, late Minister for Foreign Affairs, Member of the Hague Court and of the Second Hague Conference. M. RAFAEL J. CASTILLO, President of the Supreme Court of Justice,

Member of the Hague Court.

M. ELISEO GRULL6N, late Minister for Foreign Affairs, Member of the Hague Court.

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND SUPPORTERS xxi

Ecuador— M. E. DORN Y DE ALSUA, Member of the Second Hague Con- ference, Charge" d'Affaires in Paris.

General JULIO ANDRADE, Deputy, late Minister of Public Instruction, Minister of Ecuador at Bogota, Member of the Hague Court.

France— M. L&ON BOURGEOIS, late Prime Minister and President of the Chamber of Deputies, Member of the Hague Court and of both Hague Conferences.

Baron D'ESTOURNELLES DE CONSTANT, Senator, Member of both Hague Conferences, Member of the Hague Court, President of the Conciliation Internationale, Nobel Peace Prize. M. ALBERT DECRAIS, Senator, late Ambassador and Colonial Minister,

Member of the Hague Court. M. MARCELLIN PELLET, French Minister at The Hague, Member of the

Second Hague Conference.

M. LOUIS RENAULT, Membre de 1'Institut, Member of both Hague Con- ferences, Member of the Hague Court, Nobel Peace Prize, Professor of International Law. Germany — Dr. L. v. BAR, Member of the Hague Court, Hon. Member of the

Institute of International Law, Professor of International Law. Dr. PHILIPP ZORN, Senator, Member of both Hague Conferences,

Professor of International Law.

Greece— M. A. TYPALDO-BASSIA, late President ad interim of Greek Parlia- ment, Member of the Hague Court, Professor of Economics. Prof. Dr. MICHEL KEBEDGY, Judge of the Court of Appeal at Alexandria,

Member of the Hague Court. M. CLEON RIZO RANGABE, Greek Minister in Berlin, Member of the

Second Hague Conference. M. GEORGES STREIT, Member of the Second Hague Conference, Member

of the Hague Court, Professor of International Law. Guatemala— M. ANTONIO BATRES jAUREGUI, late Minister of State,

Member of the Hague Court. M. LUIS TOLEDO HERRARTE, Minister of Guatemala at Washington,

Member of the Hague Court. M. MANUEL CABRAL, late Minister of State, President of the Judiciary

Power, Member of the Hague Court. Haiti— -M. JEAN JOSEPH DALBEMAR, late Haytian Minister in Paris,

Member of the Second Hague Conference. M. TERTULLIEN GUILBAUD, late Chief of Cabinet, late Senator,

Member of the Hague Court.

M. PIERRE HUDICOURT, Member of the Second Hague Conference, Batonnier de 1'Ordre des Avocats de Port-au-Prince, late Professor of Inter- national Law.

M. JACQUES NICOLAS LEGER, late Minister of Hayti in Washington, Member of the Hague Court, Member of the Second Hague Conference, President of the Port-au-Prince Society for Legislation. General LEGITIME, late President of the Republic of Hayti, Member of the

Hague Court. M. SOLON MENOS, late Minister of Finance, Commerce, Justice, and

Foreign Affairs, Member of the Hague Court.

Hungary— Count ALBERT APPONYI, Deputy, late Minister of Public Educa- tion, late Speaker, Member of the Hague Court.

M. ALBERT DE BERZEVICZY, President of the Chamber of Deputies,

President of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Member of Hague Court.

Italy— M. GUIDO FUSINATO, Deputy, Councillor of State, late Minister of

Public Instruction, Member of the Second Hague Conference, Member of

the Hague Court, late Professor of International Law.

tM. ANGELO MAJORANA, Deputy, late Minister of Finance, Member of

the Hague Court, Professor of International Law.

tM. AUGUSTE PIERANTONI, LL.D. (Oxford and Edinburgh), Senator, late President of the Institute of International Law, Member of the Hague Court, Professor of International Law.

tM. GUIDO POMPILJ, Deputy, Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Member of both Hague Conferences.

xxii UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

Japan— Baron Dr. ITCH IRQ MOTONO, Japanese Ambassador at St. Peters- burg, Member of the Hague Court and of the First Hague Conference.

M. AIMARO SATO, Japanese Minister at The Hague, Member of the Second Hague Conference.

M. KEIROKU TSUDZUKI, Member of the Second Hague Conference.

Luxemburg— M. EYSCHEN, The Minister of State, President of the Grand- Ducal Government, Member of both Hague Conferences.

Mexico— M. FRANCISCO L. DE LA BARRA, Mexican Ambassador at Wash- ington, Member of the Second Hague Conference.

M. JOAQUIN D. CASASUS, late Ambassador at Washington, late Director of the National School of Jurisprudence of Mexico, Member of the Hague Court.

M. GONZALO A. ESTEVA, Mexican Minister in Rome, Member of the Second Hague Conference.

Dr. JOAQUIN OBREGON GONZALEZ, Governor of the State of Guanajuato, Member of the Hague Court.

M. JOSE IVES LIMANTOUR, Secretary of State in the Ministry of Finance, Member of the Hague Court.

M. PABLO MACEDO, Deputy, President of the Monetary Commission, Director of the National School of Law, Member of the Hague Court.

M. SEBASTIAN B. de MIER, Mexican Minister in Paris, Member of the

Second Hague Conference.

Netherlands— M. T. M. C. ASSER, Minister of State, Member of the Council of State, Member of the Hague Court and of both Hague Conferences, Foundation Member and Hon. Member of Institute of International Law.

The JONKHEER G. L. M. R. RUYS DE BEERENBROUCK, late Minister of Justice, Queen's Commissioner in the Province of Limburg, Member of the Hague Court.

M. F. B. CONINCK LIEFSTING, late President of the Court of Cassation, Member of the Hague Court.

The JONKHEER DEN BEER PORTUGAEL, Lieutenant-General, late Minister of War, Member of the Council of State, Member of the First and Second Hague Conferences.

The JONKHEER J. A. ROELL, Vice-Admiral retired, Aide-de-Camp to Her Majesty, late Minister of Marine, Member of the Second Hague Con- ference, First Naval Delegate to the Naval Conference in London. Nicaragua— -M. CRISANTO MEDINA, Minister of Nicaragua in Paris, Member of the Hague Court and of the Second Hague Conference.

M. DESIRE PECTOR, Member of the Hague Court, Consul-General for

France of Nicaragua and Honduras.

Norway— M. JOACHIM GRIEG, late Deputy, Member of Second Hague Conference.

Dr. FRANCIS HAGERUP, late Premier, Norwegian Minister at Copen- hagen, Member of the Second Hague Conference, Member of the Hague Court, Member of the Storting Nobel Committee.

M. H. J. HORST, late Deputy, late President of" Lagting," Member of Inter- Parliamentary Council, Member of the Nobel Committee of the-" Storting, " Member of the International Peace Bureau, Member of the Hague Court.

Dr. SIGURD IBSEN, late Minister of State, Member of the Hague Court.

Dr. CHRISTIAN L. LANGE, Member of the Second Hague Conference,

General Secretary of the Inter-Parliamentary Union. Panama— M. BELISARIO PORRAS, Envoy Extraordinary, Member of the

Second Hague Conference.

Persia -M. MIRZA HASSAN-KHAN MUCHIR-UL-DEVLET, Minister of Justice, Member of the Hague Court.

M. MIRZA AHMED KHAN SADIGHUL MULK, Persian Minister at the Hague, Member of the Second Hague Conference.

M. MIRZA SAMAD-KHAN MOMTAZOS SALTANEH, Persian Minister

in Paris, Member of the Hague Court and of both Hague Conferences. Portugal— M. ALBERTO D'OLIVEIRA, late Portuguese Minister at Berne, Member of the Second Hague Conference.

M. FERNANDO MATTOSO SANTOS, late Minister of Finance and of Foreign Affairs, Member of the Hague Court.

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND SUPPORTERS xxiii

MARQUIS DE SOVERAL, G.C.M.G., Councillor of State, late Minister

for Foreign Affairs, late Portuguese Ambassador in London, Member of

the Second Hague Conference. Roumania—M. CONSTANTIN G. DISSESCU, Senator, late Minister of

Justice and of Education, Member of the Hague Court, Member of the

Inter-Parliamentary Council, Professor of Law. Dr. JEAN KALINDERU, late President of the High Court of Cassation and

Justice, Member of the Roumanian Academy, Administrator of the Crown

Domains, Member of the Hague Court. M. THEODORE G. ROSETTI, late Premier, late President of the High

Court of Cassation, Member of the Hague Court. Russia— M. J. OVTCHINNIKOW, Professor of International Law, Member

of both Hague Conferences. M. NICOLAS TCHARYKOW, Russian Ambassador at Constantinople,

Member of the Second Hague Conference.

Salvador— M. PEDRO J. MATHEU, Consul-General of Salvador in Spain, Member of the Hague Court and of the Second Hague Conference.

Servia— General SAVA GROUITCH, late President of the Council of State,

Member of the Second Hague Conference. M. MILOVAN MILOVANOVITCH, Ministerfor Foreign Affairs, Member of

the Hague Court and of the Second Hague Conference, late Professor of Law. M. MILENKO R. VESNITCH, Servian Minister for France and

Belgium, late Minister of Justice, late President of the Skouptchina,

Member of the Hague Court, late Professor of International Law. Spain— M. GABRIEL MAURA Y GAMAZO, Comte de la Mortera, Deputy,

Member of the Second Hague Conference. M. EDUARDO DATO IRADIER, President of the Chamber of Deputies,

late Minister of the Interior and of Justice, Member of the Hague Court. M. RAFAEL M. DE LABRA, Senator, Director of Primary Instruction,

Member of the Hague Court, Member of the Institute of International Law. M. RAFAEL DE URENA Y SMENJAUD, Member of the Hague Court,

Professor of Law. M. WENCESLAO RAMIREZ DE VILLA URRUTIA, Senator, late

Minister for Foreign Affairs, Spanish Ambassador in London, Member of

both Hague Conferences. Sweden— M. JOHAN FREDRIK IVAR AFZELIUS, Deputy, President of the

Commission for the Revision of the Law, late Judge of the Supreme Court,

Member of the Hague Court. M. KNUT HJALMAR LEONARD DE HAMMARSKJOLD, late Minister

of Justice and of Education, late Swedish Minister at Copenhagen, late

President of the Court of Appeal of Jonkoping, Governor of the Province of

Upsala, Member of the Hague Court and of the Second Hague Conference,

late Professor of Law. Switzerland— M. GASTON CARLIN, Swiss Minister in London, Member of

the Second Hague Conference. Dr. EUGEN HUBER, Member of the National Council, Member of the

Hague Court, Professor of Law.

Dr. MAX HUBER, Member of Second Hague Conference, Professor of Law. Turkey — M. SAID BEY, President of the Legislative Section of the Council of

State, Member of the Hague Court. GABRIEL EFFENDI NORADOUNGHIAN, Senator, late Minister of

Commerce and Public Works, Member of the Hague Court. MOUSTAFA RECHID PASHA, Turkish Ambassador at Vienna, Member

of the Second Hague Conference. TURKHAN PASHA, Ottoman Ambassador at St. Petersburg, Member of

the Second Hague Conference. United States— The Hon. JOSEPH H. CHOATE, LL.D., late United States

Ambassador to Great Britain, Member of the Second Hague Conference. The Hon. GEORGE B. DAVIS, Judge Attorney General, Member of the

Second Hague Conference. The Hon. JOHN W. GRIGGS, late Attorney-General, Member of the Hague

Court.

xxiv UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

The Hon. HORACE PORTER, late United States Ambassador in Paris,

Member of the Second Hague Conference. The Hon. URIAH M. ROSE, Ambassador Extraordinary, Member of the

Second Hague Conference. Uruguay— Dr. GONZALO RAMIREZ, Minister of Uruguay at Buenos-Ayres,

Professor of International Law in the University of Montevideo, Member

of the Hague Court. Venezuela— Dr. FRANCISCO ARROYO PAREJO, Legal Adviser at the

Ministry for Public Works, Professor of Civil Law at the University of

Caracas, Member of the Hague Court. Dr. CARLOS LEON, late Minister of Public Instruction, late Governor

of the Federal District, late Judge at the Court of Cassation, Professor

of Sociology and Economics at the University of Caracas, Member of the

Hague Court. General MANUEL ANTONIO MATOS, late Minister of State, late President

of the Senate, Member of the Hague Court.

//. Presidents of Parliaments (At the time of acceptance — A la date d'adhesion.) Argentina— -M. B. VILLANUEVA, President of the Senate. Belgium— M. le VICOMTE SIMONIS, President of the Senate.

M. COOREMAN, President of the Chamber of Deputies. Brazil— M. QUINTINO BOCAYUVA, President of the Senate. Bulgaria— Dr. P. ORACHNOWAC, President of the National Assembly. Canada— 1hz Hon. CHARLES MARCIL, M.P., LL.D., Speaker of the House

of Commons of Canada. Costa Rica—M. RICARDO JIMENEZ, President of the Chamber of Deputies,

President of the Republic for 1910-1914. Denmark— Dr. CARL GOOS, President of the Senate. M. CHR. SONNE, (late) President of the Senate. M. A. THOMSEN, President of Folketing. France— M. ANTONIN DUBOST, President of the Senate.

M. HENRI BRISSON, President of the Chamber of Deputies. Germany— Graf v. SCHWERIN-LOWITZ, President of the Reichstag. ffayti—M. F. P. PAULIN, President of the Senate.

M. GERSON DESROSIER, President of the National Assembly. Hungary— Count ALBIN CSAKY, President of the Chamber of Magnates. M. ALBERT DE BERZEVICZY, President of the Chamber of Deputies.

(See also Section I.)

Count AURELE DESSEVFFY, (late) President of the Chamber of Magnates. Dr. ALEXANDER GAL, (late) President of the Chamber of Deputies. Japan— M. S. HASEBA, President of the Chamber of Deputies. Netherlands— M. I. E. N. Baron SCHIMMELPENNINCK VAN DER OYE

DE HOEVELAKEN, President of the Senate. Portugal— M. JOSE JOAQUIM MENDES LEAL, President of the House of

Deputies, late Civil Governor. Roumania— General C. BUDISTEANU, President of the Senate.

M. PHEREKYDE, President of the Chamber of Deputies. Russia— M. N. A. HOMIAKOFF, late President of the Duma of the Empire. Senna— M. A. NIKOLITCH, President of the Chamber of Deputies. Spain— M. le MARQUIS de AZCARRAGA, President of the Senate.

M. EDUARDO DATO IRADIER, President of the Chamber of Deputies

(See also Section I.)

Sweden— M. CHR. LUNDEBERG, President of the First Chamber. Switzerland— Dr. VIRGILE ROSS EL, President of the National Council

Professor at the University of Berne. Dr. PAUL USTERI, President of the State Council.

Turkey— His Highness SAID PASHA, President of Senate, late Grand Vizier. M. AHMED RIZA, President of the Chamber of Deputies.

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND SUPPORTERS xxv

///. Rulers, Ministers of State, Governors, and Ambassadors* (At the time of acceptance— A la date d'adhesion.)

Argentina— Dr. V. DE LA PLAZA, Minister for Foreign Affairs. Belgium— M. le COMTE de LALAING, Belgian Minister in London.

M. J. RENKIN, Minister for Colonial Affairs.

Bolivia— M. D. SANCHEZ BUSTAMENTE, Minister for Foreign Affairs. Brasil—M.. le MARECHAL HERMES da FONSECA, President of the Re- public. Bulgaria— M. HEDJI MISCHEFF, Bulgarian Charge" d'Affaires in London.

General PAPRIKOFF, Bulgarian Minister for Foreign Affairs. China— M.. YIN-CH'ANG, Chinese Minister in Berlin. M. LI CHING FONG, K.C.V.O., Chinese Minister in London. M. WOU TSUNG-LIEN, Chinese Minister at Rome. Colombia— M. C. CALDERON, (late) Minister for Foreign Affairs. Denmark— M. LIMPRICHT, Governor of the Danish West India Islands. France— M. G. ANGOULVANT, C.M.G., Governor of French Ivory Coast. M. VICTOR AUGAGNEUR, Governor-General of Madagascar. M. DIDELOT, Administrator of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon. M. LIOTARD, Lt.-Governor of French Guinea. M. PASCAL, Governor of French Somaliland. Germany— Dr. ALBERT HAHL, Governor of German New Guinea.

Dr. SOLF, Governor of Samoan Islands. Great Britain— Admiral Sir DAY H. BOSANQUET, G.C.V.O., K.C.B., J.P.,

D.L., Governor of South Australia. Sir CAVENDISH BOYLE, K.C.M.G., Governor and Commander-in-Chief

of Mauritius. The Hon. ALFRED DEAKIN, Prime Minister of the Commonwealth of

Australia. Sir THOMAS DAVID GIBSON-CARMICHAEL, Bart., K.C.M.G., M.A.,

D.L., Governor of Victoria. Lt.-Colonel HENRY LIONEL GALLWEY, C.M.G,, D.S.O., Governor of

St. Helena.

His Highness the RAJA OF KANIKA. Sir EVERARDimTHURN, K.C.M.G., C.B., Governor of Fiji and High

Commissioner of the Western Pacific.

The Hon. WILLIAM KIDSTON, Prime Minister of Queensland. Sir GEORGE R. LE HUNTE, K.C.M.G., Governorand Commander-in-Chief

of Trinidad and Tobago.

Sir JAMES H. S. LOCKHART, K.C.M.G., Commissioner of Waihaiwai. Sir WILLIAM MAcGREGOR, G.C.M.G., C.B., M.D., D.Sc., LL.D.,

F.F.P.S., Governor of Queensland.

His Highness THE MAHARAJA BAHADUR of Darbhanga, K.C.I.E. His Highness THE MAHARAJADHIRAJA, Bahadur of Burdwan. His Highness MAHARAJA SAYAJIRAO GAEKWAR OF BARODA,

G.C.S.I., etc., etc. The Right Hon. Sir FREDERICK ROBERT1 MOOR, P.C., K.C.M.G.,

D.C.L., LL.D., M.L.A., Prime Minister of Natal. Lt.-Col. Sir N. J. MOORE, K.C.M.G., Premier of Western Australia. The Hon. J. H. P. MURRAY, Lt.-Governor of Papua. The Hon. JOHN MURRAY, Premier of Victoria. His Highness THE NAWAB of Dacca. Sir SYDNEY OLIVIER, K.C.M.G., Governor of Jamaica. The Hon. A. C. RUTHERFORD, Prime Minister of Alberta, Canada. Lieut.-Col. Sir JAMES HAYES SADLER, K.C.M.G., C.B., Governor and

Commander-in-Chief of Windward Islands. The Hon. J. W. SAUER, M.L.D., Minister of Railways and Harbours of the

Dominion of United South Africa. His Highness RAJA AIPUDAMAN SINGH of NABHA, G.C.S.I., G.C.I.E.

* See also under Sections I. and II. — Voir aussi Sections I. et II.

xxvi UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

Colonel Sir ERIC JOHN EAGLES SWAYNE, K.C.M.G., C.B., Governor

of British Honduras. The Hon. CHARLES GREGORY WADE, K.C., Prime Minister of New

South Wales. The Right Hon. Sir JOSEPH G. WARD, K.C.M.G., LL.D., Premier of

New Zealand.

Greece— M. J. GENNADIUS, Greek Minister in London. Guatemala— M. ESTRADA CABRERA, President of the Republic. Hayti—M. MURAT CLAUDE, Minister for Foreign Affairs and Public

Instruction.

M. C. FOUCHARD, Haytian Minister in Berlin. M. GEORGES SYLVAIN, Haytian Minister in Paris. M. DURACINE VAVAL, Haytian Minister in London. Honduras— General MIGUEL R. DAVILA, President of the Republic.

Dr. LUIS LAZO ARRIAGA, Minister of Honduras at Washington. Italy— M. L. CREDARO, Minister of Public Instruction. Liberia— M. ARTHUR BARCLAY, President of the Republic. M. J. CROMMELIN, Liberian Minister in London. M. M. DINKLAGE, Charge d 'Affaires for Liberia in Germany. The Hon. F. E. R. JOHNSON, Secretary of State.

Mexico— M. MIGUEL COVARRUBIAS, Mexican Minister in London. Netherlands — Dr. D. FOCK, Governor of Surinam, late Colonial Minister,

Member of the Institut Colonial International.

Baron GERICKE VAN HERWIJNEN, Netherlands Minister in London. M. J.-H. de WAAL MALEFYT, Minister for Colonial Affairs. Dr. Th. J. A. NUYENS, Governor of Curacao, West Indies. Baron A. J. QUARLES DE QUARLES, Governor of Island of Celebes. Nicaragua— M.. JOSE MADRIZ, President of the Republic. Persia— M. HAKIM-EL-MOLK, Minister of Public Instruction.

M. MAHMOUD KHAN, Persian Minister at Brussels, Corresponding

Member of the Lisbon Geographical Society. M. MIRZA MEHDI KHAN MUSHIR-UL-MULK, Persian Minister in

London.

M. MOHTACHEMOS-SALTANEH, Minister for Foreign Affairs. M. MIRZA MOUSTAPHA KHAN SAFAOL MEM ALEK, Persian Minister

in Vienna

M. ISAAC KHAN MOFAKHAM-ED-DOVLEH, Persian Minister at Rome. M. MOKHBER-ES-SALTANEH, Governor-General of Azerbaijan (Tabriz). M. MIRZA MAHMOUD KHAN EHTECHAM-OS-SALTANE, Persian

Minister in Berlin,

M. VUSOUK ED DAULEH, Minister of Justice.

Peru— M. EDUARDO LEMBCKE, Charge d'Affaires of Peru in London. Portugal— M. A. A. FREIRE D'ANDRADE, Governor-General of Portuguese

East Africa.

M. MAGALHAES LIMA, Portugese Minister in London. M. MARQUES, Governor of Macao. M. ROCADAS, Governor of Angola.

fioumania—M. A. C. CATARGI, Roumanian Minister in London. Salvador— General F. FIGUEROA, President of the Republic. Servia.—M. S. Y. GROUITCH, Servian ChargS d'Affaires. SWOT— The Ven. P. C. JINAVARAVANSA, S'yam Rajakumara Nayaka Thera, M.R.A.S. (the late Col. Prince Prisdang, C.M.G., etc., of Siam), Ratna Chetiyarama, Colombo. Spain— M. FIDE LEON Y CASTILLO, MARQUIS DEL MUNI, Senator,

late Minister of State, Spanish Ambassador in Paris. Sweden— Count H. WRANGEL, Swedish Minister in London. Turkey— NAOUM PASHA, Turkish Ambassador in Paris. RIFAAT PASHA, Minister for Foreign Affairs. TEWFIK PASHA, Turkish Ambassador in London.

Venezuela— General JUAN VICENTE GOMEZ, President of the Republic. United States— T. J. O'BRIEN, LL.D., United States Ambassador at Tokyo.

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND SUPPORTERS xxvii

HON. GENERAL COMMITTEE.

President :

PROF. FELIX ADLER, New York.

Viee-Presidents :

PROF. FELIX v. LUSCHAN, Berlin. SIR EDWARD BUSK, London.

BARON D'ESTOURNELLES DE CONSTANT, Paris.

His HIGHNESS PRINCE DE CASSANO, Rome.

AFGHANISTAN. Fakir SYED IFTIKHARUDDIN, British Agent at Kaboul.

ARGENTINA.

Dr. F. AMEGHINO, Director National Natural History Museum at Buenos Ayres.

Prof. EDUARDO L. BIDAU, Argentine Delegate to the fourth Pan-American Con- gress (International Law, U. of Buenos Ayres).

M. NESTOR CARETO, Cordova.

Dr. MANUEL DESSEIN, Buenos Ayres.

M.VICTOR O. DIARD, Buenos Ayres, President-General of the Universal Scientific Alliance for America.

M. AUGUSTE LAPPA, Buenos Ayres.

Dr. GUILLERMO MATTI, Buenos Ayres.

Prof. Dr. ENRIQUE MARTINEZ PAZ (Sociology, U. of Cordova).

Prof. ARNAUD SARRAT, Buenos Ayres.

M. THEODORE SOURDILLE, Mathematician, Cordova.

Prof. Jos£ LEON SUAREZ (International Law, U. of Buenos Ayres).

AUSTRIA.

Prof. Dr. J. DE BLOCISZEWSKI (Diplomatic History and International Law, Consular Academy, Vienna).

Dr. RUDOLF EISLER, Secretary of the Vienna Sociological Society, Editor of " Philos.-Sociologische Biicherei."

M. ALFRED H. FRIED, Vienna, Editor of Friedenswarte, Member of the Inter- national Peace Bureau.

Prof. Dr. RUDOLF GEYER (Arabic, U. of Vienna).

Dr. RUDOLF GOLDSCHEID, Sociological Society of Vienna.

Prof. Dr. HANS GROSS (Law, U. of Graz).

Prof. Dr. MAX GRUNERT, Rector of the German University in Prague.

Prof. Dr. WLADYSLAW HEINRICH (Philosophy, U. of Cracow).

Dr. FRIEDRICH HERTZ, Vienna, Author.

Prof. Dr. MAURICE HOERNES (Prehistorical Archaeology, U. of Vienna).

Prof. Baron ALEXANDER v. HOLD-FERNECK (International Law, U. of Vienna).

Prof. Dr. FRIEDRICH JODL (Philosophy, U. of Vienna).

Prof. Dr. J. KlRSTE (Oriental Philology, U. of Graz).

Prof. Dr. RUDOLF KOBATSCH (Commercial Politics, Konsular Akademie, Vienna).

Prof. Dr. KARL KRETSCHMER (Comparative Philology, U. of Vienna).

Prof. T. G. MASARYK, Member of Reichsrat (Philosophy, U. of Prague).

Prof. Dr. ALEXIUS MEINONG (Philosophy, U. of Graz).

Dr. JULIUS OFNER, Vienna, Member of Reichsrat.

Dr. ALBERT REIBMAYER, Brixen, Tyrol.

Prof Dr. EMIL REICH (Aesthetics, U. of Vienna).

Count MICHEL ROSTWOROWSKI, Associate of the Institut de Droit International (Constitutional and International Law, U. of Cracow).

Prof. Dr. FRANCO SAVORGNAN (Economics, Higher Commercial School, Trieste).

Father WILHELM SCHMIDT, S.V.D., Editor of Anthropos, Modling, Vienna.

xxviii UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

Prof. Dr. LEO STRISOWER (International Law, U. of Vienna). Baroness BERTHA V. SUTTNER, Vienna, Authoress, Hon. President of the Inter- national Peace Bureau, Nobel Prize Laureate. Prof. Dr. M.WINTERNITZ (Ethnology and Indian Philology, German U. of Prague).

BELGIUM.

Prof. MAURICE ANSIAUX (Economics, U. of Brussels).

Prof. Dr. BONMARIAGE (Colonial Hygiene, Institut des Hautes Etudes, Brussels).

Prof. JEAN CAPART (Egyptology, U. of Liege).

The Very Rev. Father A. DE CLERCQ, Scheut, Rector of the Seminaire des Mis- sions Etrangeres.

Prof. HECTOR DENIS (Philosophy, U. of Brussels).

M. V. DENYN, Brussels, Director-General at the Belgian Colonial Office and Chief of the Colonial Minister's Cabinet.

Prof. R. DE RlDDER (International Law, U. of Ghent).

M. DESTREE, Deputy, Brussels.

Prof. Dr. EMILE DE WILDEMAN, General Secretary of the Third International Congress of Botany.

M. NORBERT DIDERRICH, Brussels, Member of Colonial Council, Member of Institut Colonial International.

Dr. GUSTAVE DRYEPONDT, Brussels, Associate of Institut Colonial International.

Prof. L. DUPRIEZ, Member of Colonial Council (Comparative Law, U. of Louvain).

M. PAUL ERRERA, Rector of Brussels University, Associate Institut de Droit International (Public Law, U. of Brussels).

M. LEON FURNEMONT, Brussels, Barrister, Deputy.

Prof. GOFFART (Economics and Industrial Geography, U. of Ghent).

Prof. TH. COLLIER (Japanese, U. of Li&ge).

M. MICHEL HALEWYCK, Brussels, Director at the Belgian Colonial Office of Belgium, Second Secretary of Belgian Colonial Council.

Prof. Dr. E. HOUZE (Anthropology, U. of Brussels).

Prof. MICHEL HUISMAN (History and Economic Geography, U. of Brussels).

Dr. JULES INGENBLEEK, Brussels, Private Secretary to Their Majesties the King and Queen of Belgium.

M. T. JANSON, Brussels, Deputy, late Batonnier.

M. CAMILLE JANSSEN, late Governor-General of the Belgian Congo, General Secretary of the International Colonial Institute.

M. H. LA FONTAINE, Senator, President of the International Peace Bureau (Inter- national Law, U. of Brussels).

M. AUG. HOUZEAU DE LEHAIE, Senator, Member and Treasurer of the Inter- Parliamentary Council.

M. MAURICE MAETERLINCK, Author, Grasse (France).

Prof. ERNEST MAHAIM (International Law, U. of Liege).

M. PAUL OTLET, Brussels, General Sec. of Institut International de Bibliographic and of Office Central des Institutions Internationales.

M. CYRIL VAN OVERBERGH, Brussels, Director-General for Higher Education, President of the Belgian Sociological Society, President of the Provisory International Bureau of Ethnography.

Prof. P. POULLET, Deputy, Associate of the Institut de Droit International (Inter- national Law, U. of Louvain)

M. ADOLPHE PRINS, Inspector-General of Belgian Prisons, President of the Union Internationale de Droit Penal (Law, U. of Brussels).

Prof. ALBE"RIC ROLIN, General Secretary of the Institute of International Law (International Law, U. of Ghent).

M. HENRI ROLIN, Judge (Law, U. of Brussels).

M. F. C. DE SKEEL-GIORLING, Brussels, Editor of Revuo de la Kongresoj.

Prof. H. SPEYER, Member of Colonial Council, Associate of Institut Colonial International (Criminal Law, U. of Brussels).

Colonel THYS, Brussels, President of the Compagnie du chemin de fer du Congo, Member of the Institut Colonial International.

M. J. VAN DEN GHEYN, S.J., Brussels, Chief Librarian Royal Library of Belgium.

Prof. A. VERMEERSCH, S. J. (Moral Theology, Theological College, Louvain).

M. G. VOUCHARD, Brussels, Editor of Mouvement Gtographique.

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND SUPPORTERS xxix

M. A. J. WAUTERS, Brussels, General Sec. of Congo Railway, Member of the

Belgian Royal Academy, Associate of Institut Colonial International. Prof. E. WAXWEILER, Director of the Institut de Sociologie, Brussels.

BRAZIL.

Madame AMELIA DE FREITAS BEVILAQUA, Author, Rio de Janeiro. Prof. JoAo BAPTISTE DE LACERDA, Director National Museum of Rio de Janeiro. M. JACQUES HUBER, Ph.D., Para", Director of Museo Goeldi de Historia Natural e Ethnographia.

BULGARIA.

M. STEFAN S. BOBTCHEV, Deputy, President of the Socie'te' Slave and of the

Socie'te' des Publicistes Bulgares (History of Law, U. of Sophia). Prof. Dr. T. GHEORGOV (Philosophy, U. of Sophia). Prof. Dr. IsiRKOL (Geography, U. of Sophia). Prof. M. POPOVILIEV, Dean of Faculty of Law (International Law, U. of Sophia).

CHILE.

M. ANTONIO HUNEEUS, Santiago, late Minister for Foreign Affairs.

M. MARCIAL MARTINEZ, LL.D. (of Yale and Edinburgh).

Prof. CARLOS E. PORTER, Director of the Natural History Museum of Valparaiso.

CHINA. C. W. CAMPBELL, C.M.G., F.R.A.L, British Legation, Peking.

COSTA RICA. Dr. THEODORE PICADO MARIN, San Jose.

DENMARK.

Prof. Dr. DINES ANDERSEN (Indian Philology, U. of Copenhagen).

M. FREDRIK BAJER, Copenhagen, late Hon. President of the International Peace

Bureau, Nobel Prize Laureate, Member of Inter- Parliamentary Council. Commodore E. BLUHME, Norlund, late Deputy, Member of the Danish Committee

of the Inter-Parliamentary Union. M. JENS CHRISTIAN CHRISTENSEN, Copenhagen, late Prime Minister, Member

of the Danish Committee of the Inter-Parliamentary Union.

M. CARL Goos, late Minister of Justice, Member of Institut de Droit International. Prof. Dr. HARALD HOEFFDING (Philosophy, U. of Copenhagen). Prof. Dr. VILHELM THOMSEN, Hon. M.R.A.S., President of the Royal Danish

Academy (Comparative Philology, U. of Copenhagen).

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. General CASIMIRO N. DE MOYA, Santo Domingo.

EGYPT.

Dr. M. MUHAMMAD BADRE, F.R.S.E., M.R.A.S., Cairo, of Edinburgh and Bonn

Universities.

His Excellency HASSAN SABRY BEY, Cairo. His Excellency Shiek ALY YusiF, Cairo, Editor- Proprietor of Al-Moayad,

President of the Constitutional Reform League.

FRANCE.

M. EMILE ARNAUD, Luzarches, Notary, General President of the Ligue Interna- tionale de la Paix et de la Liberte", Vice-President International Peace Bureau.

M. ALFRED BARRIOL, General Secretary of the Societe de Statistique of Paris.

M. GuiLLAUME LE BARS, Barrister, Vitry-le-Frangois.

M. AUGUSTE BARTH, Paris, Membre de 1'Institut.

Prof. BASDEVANT (International Law, U. of Grenoble).

M. CHARLES BEAUQUIER, Deputy, Vice-President of the Parliamentary Peace Group, President of the Franco-Italian League, and Hon. President of the Franco-Ottoman League.

Prof. ALEXIS BERTRAND (Philosophy, U. of Lyons).

xxx UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

Prof. P. VIDAL DE LA BLACHE, Membre de FInstitut (Geography, U. of Paris).

Prof. CHARLES DE BOECK (International Law, U. of Bordeaux).

M. LEON BOLLACK, Paris, President of the Paris section of the Association de la

Paix par le Droit, Author of La Langue Bleue.

Prof. EMILE BOREL, Editor of Revue du Mois (Mathematics, U. of Paris). Dr. RODOLPHE BRODA, Paris, Editor of Les Documents du Progres. Prof. LUCIEN LEVY BRUHL (Philosophy, U. of Paris). Prof. LEON BRUNSCHVICG (Philosophy, U. of Paris).

M. FERDINAND BUISSON, Paris, Deputy, Member Inter-Parliamentary Council. Prof. PAUL BUREAU (International Law, Faculte libre de Droit, Paris). Prof. JULES CABOUAT (International Law, U. of Caen). Prof. J. CHAILLEY, Deputy, Director-General of the French Colonial Union,

Member of the Institut Colonial International (Comparative Colonisation,

Ecole des Sciences Politiques, Paris).

Prof. ALFRED CHRETIEN, Associate of the Institute of International Law (Inter- national Law, U. of Nancy). M. ARTHUR CHUQUET, Membre de FInstitut (History and Germanic Languages,

U. of Paris).

Prof. AMBROISE COLIN (Comparative Law, U. of Paris). Dr. RENE COLLIGNON, Hon. F. R.A.I., Cherbourg. M. GABRIEL COMPAYRE, Paris, Membre de FInstitut. Prof. LOUIS COUTURAT (Philosophy, U. of Paris). Prof. JOSEPH DELPECH (International Law, U. of Dijon).

Dr. J. DENlKER,Hon. F.RA.I.jParis, Librarian of the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle. M. PAUL DESCHANEL, Paris, Deputy, Member of the Academic Franchise, late

President of the Chamber of Deputies. Prof. L. DUGUIT (International Law, U. of Bordeaux). Prof. EMILE DURKHEIM (Sociology, U. of Paris).

Prof. E. DOUTTE (Mohammedan Civilisation, Ecole Superieure des Lettres, Algiers). M. PAUL FAUCHILLE, Sceaux, Editor of the Revue Generale de Droit Inter- national Ptiblic.

M. JEAN FINOT, Paris, Editor of La Revue. M. ALFRED FOUILLEE, Mentone, Membre de FInstitut.

M. LUCIEN LE FOYER, Deputy, Vice-President Association de la Paix par le Droit. Prof. E. F. GAUTIER (Comparative Philology, Ecole des Lettres, Algiers). Prof. HENRI GERARD (International Law, U. of Algiers). Prof. GILBERT GIDEL (Internatioiial Law, U. of Rennes). Prof. ARTHUR GIRAULT, Member of the Institut Colonial International (Colonial

Legislation, U. of Poitiers).

Prof. J.^HALEVY (Egyptology, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris). M. CLEMENT HUART, Professeur a 1'Ecole des Langues Orientales Vivantes

Directeur d'etudes a FEcole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris. Prof. JULES JACQUEY (International Law, U. of Lille). M. EMILE LABICHE, Paris, Senator, President of the French Inter- Parliamentary

Peace Group, Member of Inter- Parliamentary Council. Prof. A. DE LAPRADELLE, Editor of the Revue de Droit International Prive, and

Co-Editor of the Recueil des Arbitrages Internationaux (International Law,

U. of Paris).

M. FAbbe ADRIEN LAUNAY, Seminaire des Missions Etrangeres, Paris. Sa Grandeur Msgr. ALEXANDRE LE ROY, Paris, Eveque d'Alinda, Superieur

General de la Congregation du St.-Esprit. M. le Vicomte COMBES DE LESTRADE, Paris, Member of the International Institute

of Sociology. Prof. E. LEVASSEUR, Membre de FInstitut, Administrator of the College de France

(Economic History and Statistics, U. of Paris). Prof. L. MANOUVRIER, Hon. F.R.A.I. (Anthropology, Ecole d'Anthropologie,

Paris).

Prof. C. MELINAND (Ethics, Ecole Normale Superieure, St. Cloud). M. GASTON MOCH, Paris, Member of the International Peace Bureau, Hon.

President of the Institut International de la Paix of Monaco, and Member of

the Paris Committee for the Defence and Protection of Aborigines. Prof. GABRIEL MONOD, Membre de FInstitut, President of the Historical and

Philological Section at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes (History and

Historical Method, U. of Paris).

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND SUPPORTERS xxxi

Prof. MARCEL MOVE (International Law, U. of Montpellier).

M. Louis OLIVIER, Editor of the Revue Ge"nerale des Sciences.

Prof. Dr. G. PAPILLAULT (Sociology, Ecole d'Anthropologie, Paris).

Prof. D. PARODI (Philosophy, Lycee Michelet, Paris).

Prof. JEAN PERRINJAQUET (International Law, U. of Aix-Marseille).

Prof. P. Pic (International Law, U. of Lyons).

Prof. N. POLITIS, Associate of the Institute of International Law, Editor of the Reciieil des Arbitrages Internalionaux (International Law, U. of Poitiers).

Prof. MICHEL RE VON (Civilisation of the Extreme East, U. of Paris).

Prof. Dr. C. RICHET, Member International Peace Bureau (Physiology, U.of Paris).

Dr. J. A. RIVIERE, President of the International Medical Association for Aiding the Suppression of War, Editor of Annales de Physicothe'rapie.

Prof. LEON DE ROSNY, Paris, Founder and European President of the Inter- national Association of Men of Science, formerly Professor of Eastern Religions at the Sorbonne and Professor of Japanese at Ecole des Langues Orientales.

Prof. TH. RUYSSEN, President of the Association de la Paix par le Droit (Philosophy, U. of Bordeaux).

Prof. GABRIEL SEAILLES (Philosophy, U. of Paris).

Prof. A. GAIRAL DE SEREZIN (International Law, U. of Lyon).

Dr. PAUL TOPINARD, Paris, late Gen.-Sec. of the Societe d'Anthropologie of Paris.

Prof. ARNOLD VISSIERE (Chinese, Ecole des Langues Orientales, Paris).

M. WAILLE-MARYAL, Oran, President-General of the Alliance Scientifique Universelle for Africa.

Prof. ANDRE WEISS, Member of the Institut de Droit International (International Law, U. of Paris).

Prof. RENE WORMS, Paris, Permanent Secretary Institut International de Sociologie, Editor of the Revue Internationale de Sociologie (History of Sociology, Ecole des Hautes Etudes Sociales, Paris).

GERMANY.

Prof. Dr. PHILIPP ALLFELD (International Law, U. of Erlangen).

Prof. Dr. RICHARD ANDREE, Munich.

Prof. Dr. G. K. ANTON, Member of the Institut Colonial International (Political

Economy, U. of Jena).

Prof. Dr. PAUL EARTH (Philosophy, U. of Leipzig). Prof. Dr. C. H. BECKER, Associate of the Institut Colonial International (Oriental

History, Colonial Institute in Hamburg). Prof. Dr. LUJO BRENTANO (Economics, U. of Munich). Prof. Dr. SIEGFRIED BRIE (International Law, U. of Breslau). Prof. Dr. HERMANN COHEN (Philosophy, U. of Marburg). Prof. Dr. FRIEDRICH DELITZSCH, Hon. M.R.A.S. (Assyriology, U. of Berlin). Prof. Dr. ALFRED DOREN (History, U. of Leipzig). Prof. Dr. AUGUST DORING (Philosophy, U. of Berlin). Prof. Dr. GODEHARD JOSEF EBERS (International Law, U. of Breslau). Prof. RICHARD EICKHOFF, Remscheid, Member of Reichstag and Prussian Diet

Member of the Inter-Parliamentary Council. Prof. Dr. BENNO ERDMANN (Philosophy, U. of Berlin). Frau LUCY HOESCH ERNST, Ph.D., F.R.A.I., Godesberg. M. ERZBERGER, Member of Reichstag.

Prof. Dr. RUDOLF EUCKEN, Nobel Prize for Literature (Philosophy, U. of Jena). Dr. L. FEYERABEND, President of the Anthropological Society of Oberlausitz, and

President of the Society of Natural Sciences of Gorlitz. Prof. Dr. A. FINGER (International Law, U. of Halle). Prof. Dr. AUGUST FISCHER (Semitic Philology, U. of Leipzig). Prof. Dr. EUGEN FISCHER (Anthropology, U. of Freiburg). Prof. Dr. WILHELM FOERSTER (Astronomy, U. of Berlin). Prof. Dr. ERNST FRIEDRICH (Geography, U. of Leipzig).

Sr. Hochw. P. Provinzial Dr. J. FROBERGER, Missionshaus der Weissen Vater, Trier. Prof. Dr. FRANZ ADAM GOEPFERT (Moraltheology, U. of Wurzburg). Prof. Dr. ERNST HAECKEL (Zoology, U. of Jena). Prof. Dr. H. HARBURGER, Judge of the Supreme Court of Bavaria, Member

Institut de Droit International (International Law, U. of Munich). Prof. Dr. W. HASBACH (Economics, U. of Kiel). Prof. Dr. JULIUS HATSCHEK (Law, U. of Gottingen).

xxxii UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

Prof. Dr. FELIX HAUPTMANN, Member of Prussian Diet, Member of Inter- Parliamentary Council (Methodology of Law, U. of Bonn).

Justizrat Dr. A. HEILBERG, Breslau, Member of the International Peace Bureau.

Prof Dr. Paul HEILBORN (International Law, U. of Breslau).

Prof. Dr. H. HERKNER (Political Economy, Technische Hochschule, Berlin).

Prof. Dr. J. JASTROW (Economics, Handelshochschule, Charlottenburg).

Prof. Dr. GEORG JELLINEK (International Law, U. of Heidelberg).

Prof. Dr. WILHELM KAUFMANN (International Law, U. of Berlin).

Prof. Dr. A. VON KIRCHENHEIM (International Law, U. of Heidelberg).

Dr. THEODOR KOCH-GRUNBERG (Ethnology, U. of Freiburg).

Prof. Dr. JOSEF KOHLER (International Law, U. of Berlin).

Prof. Dr. ERNST KUHN, Hon. M.R.A.S. (Arian Philology, U. of Munich).

Prof. Dr. EuGEN KuHNEMANN (Philosophy, U. of Breslau).

Prof. Dr. PAUL LABAND, Member of the Council of State of Alsace-Lorraine, Associate of the Institut Colonial International (Public Law, U. of Strassburg).

Prof. Dr. P. VON LILIENTHAL (International Law, U. of Heidelberg).

Prof. Dr. THEODOR LINDNER (History, U. of Halle).

Prof. Dr. FRANZ v. LISZT (International Law, U. of Berlin).

Prof. Dr. F. V. LUSCHAN, Hon. F.R.A.I. (Anthropology, U. of Berlin).

Prof. Dr. GEORG VON MAYR, President of the Munich Oriental Society, Under- secretary of State (Economics, U. of Munich).

Prof. Dr. FRIEDRICH MEINECKE (Modern History, U. of Freiburg).

Prof. Dr. CARL MEINHOF (African Languages, Colonial Institut, Hamburg).

Prof. Dr. MEURER (International Law, U. of Wiirzburg).

Prof. Dr. PAUL NATORP (Philosophy, U. of Marburg).

Prof. ALBERT NEISSER (Medicine, U. of Breslau).

Baron E. DE NEUFVILLE, Francfort o/M., Member International Peace Bureau.

Prof. Dr. KARL NEUMEYER (International Law, U. of Munich).

Prof. Dr. THEODOR NIEMEYER (International Law, U. of Kiel).

Prof. Dr. HERMANN ONCKEN (Modern History, U. of Heidelberg).

Prof. Dr. WILHELM OSTWALD, Gross-Bothen.

Dr. RUDOLPH PENZIG, Editor of " Ethische Kultur," Berlin.

Dr. ARTHUR PFUNGST, M.R.A.S., Francfort-on-Main.

Prof. Dr. L. PLATE (Zoology, U. of Jena).

Prof. QuiDDE, Munich, Member of the International Peace Bureau.

Prof. Dr. J. RANKE, Hon. F.R.A.I. (Anthropology, U. of Munich).

Prof. Dr PAUL RATHGEN, Associate of the Institut Colonial International (Political Economy, Colonial Institute in Hamburg).

Prof. Dr. FRITZ REGEL (Geography, U . of Wiirzburg).

Dr. ADOLF RICHTER, Pforzheim, President of the German Peace Society, Member of the International Peace Bureau.

Prof. Dr. ALOIS RlEHL (Philosophy, U. of Berlin).

Prof. Dr. ROBERT SCHACHNER (Political Economy, U. of Jena).

Prof. Dr. L. SCHEMANN, Freiburg, President of Gobineau-Vereinigung.

Prof. Dr. JOSEPH SCHMIDLIN (Church History, Catholic Faculty, U. of Miinster).

Prof. Dr. PAUL SCHOEN (International Law, U. of Gottingen).

Prof. Dr. WALTER SCHUCKING (International Law, U. of Marburg).

Prof. Dr. GEORG SIMMEL (Philosophy, U. of Berlin).

Prof. Dr. WERNER SOMBART (Economics, Handelshochschule, Charlottenburg).

Prof. Dr. CARL STUMPF, late Rector University of Berlin (Philosophy, U. of Berlin).

Prof. Dr. G. THILENIUS, Gen. Sec. of the German Anthropological Society, Director of the Ethnological Museum of Hamburg (Anthropology and Ethnology, Hamburg).

Prof. Dr. FERDINAND TONNIES (Sociology, U. of Kiel).

Prof. Dr. C. UHLIG (Geography, U. of Berlin).

Prof. Dr. v. ULLMANN (International Law, U. of Munich).

Dr. A. VlERKANDT (Ethnology, U. of Berlin).

Prof. Dr. WEULE, Director Leipzig Ethnological Museum (Ethnology, U. of Leipzig).

Prof. Dr. JULIUS WOLF (Political Economy, U. of Breslau).

GREAT AND GREATER BRITAIN.

(a) BRITISH EMPIRE, EXCLUDING INDIA. Prof. ALBERT H. ABBOTT (Philosophy, U. of Toronto). Dr. A. ABDURAHMAN, Cape Town.

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND SUPPORTERS xxxiii

ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. (Talmudic, U. of Cambridge).

Prof. S. ALEXANDER (Philosophy, U. of Manchester).

JUSTIN CHARLES WILLIAM ALVAREZ, I.S.O., Tripoli, H.B.M.'s Consul-General

for Tripoli of Barbary.

THE OMANHENE AMONOO V., Anumabu, West Africa. The Rt. Rev. WALTER ANDREWS, D.D., Bishop of Hokkaido, Japan. Prof. EDWARD ANWYL, M.A. (Comparative Philology, U. College of Aberystwyth). The Rt. Rev. THOMAS HENRY ARMSTRONG, D.D., Bishop of Wangaratta.

Australia.

The Right Hon. W. F. BAILEY, C.B., F.R.G.S., Dublin. Rev. RAMSDEN BALMFORTH, Cape Town.

The Rt. Rev. CHRISTOPHER GEORGE BARLOW, D.D., Bishop of Goulburn. Prof. CHARLES F. BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D., (International Law, U. of Dublin). JOHN BEDDOE, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.A.I., etc., late President Royal Anthro- pological Institute, Bradford-on-Avon. Sir HENRY ARTHUR BLAKE, G.C.M.G., Youghal (Ireland), late Governor

Bahamas, Newfoundland, Jamaica, Hong-Kong, Ceylon. EDWARD WILMOT BLYDEN, LL.D., Sierra Leone.

Rev.W. COPELAND BOWIE, London, Sec. British and Foreign Unitarian Association. Prof. GEORGE SIDNEY BRETT, M.A. (Philosophy, U. of Toronto). Rev. DAVID BROOK, M.A., D.C.L. (Oxon), Southport, ex-President National Free

Church Council.

Prof. J. BROUGH, LL.D. (Philosophy, U. College of Aberystwyth). The Hon. JOSEPH PETER BROWN, Cape Coast Castle, West Africa. Sir CHARLES BRUCE, G.C.M.G., J.P., D.L., Leslie, late Governor of Mauritius. Prof. THOMAS H. BRYCE, M.A., M.D. (Anatomy, U. of Glasgow). Prof. T. L. BULLOCK, M.A. (Chinese, U. of Oxford).

Sir PERCY BUNTING, M.A., London, Editor of the Contemporary Review. HERBERT BURROWS, London. The Rt. Rev. HERBERT BURY, D.D. (Oxon), Bishop of British Honduras with

Central America.

WILLIAM P. BYLES, M.P., London. Mrs. W. P. BYLES, London. CHARLES CALLAWAY, M.A., D.Sc., Cheltenham. EDWARD CARPENTER, Author, Sheffield.

Prof. J. ESTLIN CARPENTER, D.Litt., Principal of Manchester College, U. of Oxford. ROGER CASEMENT, C.M.G., Consul-General at Rio de Janeiro. JOSEPH CHARLES CASSON, Superintendent of Native Affairs, Zomba, Nyasaland. The Rt. Rev. ARTHUR CHANDLER, Bishop of Bloemfontein, Orange Free State. Prof. S. J. CHAPMAN, M.A. (Political Economy, U. of Manchester). GEORGE G. CHISHOLM, M.A., B.Sc. (Geography, U. of Edinburgh). The Most Rev. HENRY LOWTHER CLARKE, Archbishop of Melbourne. Rev. JOHN CLIFFORD, M.A., LL.D., D.D., London. EDWARD CLODD, Author, London. STANTON COIT, Ph.D., London. ROBERT J. COLENSO, M.D. (Oxon), etc., London. Dr. FRANK CORNER, F.G.S., F.R.A. I., M.R.C.S., London. W. L. COURTNEY, M.A., LL.D., London, Editor of the Fortnightly Review. WILLIAM MONTGOMERY CROOK, B.A., F.R.G.S., London. WILLIAM CROOKE, B.A., F.R.A.I., M.F.L.S., Cheltenham. Major S. LYLE CUMMINS, R.A.M.C., F.R.A. I., Netley, Hants. Dr. W. EVANS DARBY, London, Secretary of the Peace Society, Member of the

International Peace Bureau.

Canon G. DAUTH, Vice- Rector of the University of Laval, Montreal. Mrs. RHYS DAVIDS, M.A., Ashton-on-Mersey, Hon. Sec. Pali Text Society. Prof. T. W. RHYS DAVIDS, F.B.A., LL.D., Ph.D. (Comparative Religion, U. of

Manchester).

Rev. J. G. DAVIES, Barmouth, Sec. Welsh Calvinistic Methodist General Assembly. Prof. T. WITTON DAVIES, Ph.D., D.D. (Semitic Languages, U. College Bangor). W. BOYD DAWKINS, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.A.I., Hon. Professor

of Palaeontology in U. of Manchester. Mrs. C. DESPARD, London.

ROBERT DONALD, London, Editor of the Daily Chronicle. The Most Rev. ST. CLAIR G. DONALDSON, Archbishop of Brisbane, Queensland.

xxxiv UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

The Rt. Rev. JOHN P. Du MOULIN, Bishop of Niagara, Canada.

The Rt. Rev. A. H. DUNN, D.D., Bishop of Quebec, Canada.

The Rt. Rev. Dr. F. H. DUVERET, D.D., Bishop of Caledonia.

Rev. CHARLES S. EBY, D.D., Sec. Peace and Arbitration Society, Toronto.

Prof. EDWARD EDWARDS, M.A. (History, U. College of Aberystwyth).

TheRt. Hon. Sir EDWIN EGERTON,G.C.M.G.,K.C.B.,York,late British Ambassador

at Rome.

ROBERT WILLIAM FELKIN, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.I., London. Prof. HENRY O. FORBES, LL.D., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.I., Director of Liverpool City

Museums (Ethnography, U. of Liverpool).

The Rt. Rev. GEORGE H. FORDHAM, D.D., Bishop of North Queensland. Rev. J. R. FREDERICK, Native Wesleyan Minister, Sierra Leone. ALFRED G. GARDINER, London, Editor of the Daily News. ARTHUR EARDLEY MAXWELL GIBSON, M.A., B.C.L., Southern Nigeria. Rev. T. MONRO GIBSON, M.A., D.D., LL.D., late President National Free Church

Council.

REGINALD JOHN GLADSTONE, M.D., F.R.C.S., London.

The Rt. Rev. FREDERICK GOLDSMITH, D.D., Bishop of Bunbury, Western Australia. GEORGE PEABODY GOOCH, M.A., late M.P., London. Prof. HENRY GOUDY, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. (Civil Law, U. of Oxford). Prof. FRANK GRANGER, D.Litt. (Philosophy, U. College of Nottingham). Prof. ARTHUR J. GRANT, M.A. (History, U. of Leeds). J. FREDERICK GREEN, London, Member of International Peace Bureau, Secretary

of International Peace and Arbitration Association.

The Rt. Rev. JOHN GRISDALE, D.D., D.C.L., Bishop of Qu'appelle, Canada. Dr. HADEN GUEST, London.

HADIR-UD-DEEN, Sec. Government Mohammedan Board of Education, Sierra Leone. The Most Rev. CHARLES HAMILTON, D.D., Archbishop of Ottawa. Rev. JAMES HASTINGS, M.A., D.D., St. Cyrus, Scotland. Prof. MATTHEW HAY, M.D., F.R.A.I. (Forensic Medicine, U. of Aberdeen). Prof. F. J. C. HEARNSHAW, M.A., LL.B. (History, U. College of Southampton). CARL HEATH, London, Sec. National Peace Council. Rev. ARCHIBALD HENDERSON, D.D., Crieff, Moderator of Assembly of the United

Free Church of Scotland.

D. F. A. HERVEY, C.M.G., R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.I., Aldeburgh. ALEXANDER PEARCE HIGGINS (International Law, Cambridge and London). Prof. R. F. ALFRED HOERNLE (Philosophy, S. African College, Cape Town). Prof. HOPE W. HOGG, M.A., B.Litt. (Semitic Languages and Literature, U. of

Manchester).

A. C. HOLLIS, Secretary Native Affairs, Nairoli, E. Africa Protectorate. The Rt. Rev. WILFRID BIRD HORNBY, D.D., Bishop of Nassau, Bahamas. Rev. Dr. R. F. HORTON, M.A., London, late Chairman of Congregational Union

of England and Wales.

The Rt. Rev. GEOFFREY D. ILIFF, D.D., Bishop of Shantung, N. China. The Hon. Sir JAMES ROSE-!NNES, K.C., Chief Justice of the Transvaal, Pretoria. - HUGH, Editor The Voice, St. Lucia, British W. Africa. The Rt. Rev. JAMES JOHNSON, D.D., Bishop of Western Equatorial Africa. Sir HARRY H. JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., D.Sc., etc., etc., Arundel, Sussex. Rev. J. D. JONES, M.D., B.D., Bournemouth, President Congregational Union. Prof. W. JENKYN JONES, M.A. (Political Science, U. College, Aberystwyth). Prof. CHARLES H. KEITH JOPP (Maratta, U. of Oxford). A. H. KEANE, LL.D., F.R.A.I., London.

The Rt. Rev. G. LANCHESTER KING, D.D., Bishop of Madagascar. Dr. Louis LABERGE, Montreal.

The Rt. Rev. GERARD H. LANDER, D.D., Bishop of Victoria, Hong Kong. Rev. WILLIAM B. LARK, Bude, President of the United Methodist Church. Prof. ROBERT LATTA, Ph.D. (Logic and Rhetoric, U. of Glasgow). ALFRED LIONEL LEWIS, F.C.A., F.R.A.I., Wallington, Surrey. Rev. J. SCOTT LIDGETT, M.A., D.D., late President Wesleyan Methodist Confer- ence and late President National Free Church Council. The Rt. Rev. JOSEPH LOFTHOUSE, Bishop of Keewatin, Canada. Prof. JOSEPH HENRY LONGFORD, late H.M. Consul at Nagasaki (Japanese, King's

College, London). Dr. J. J. McCLURE, Cape Town, Ex-Moderator Presbyterian Church of S. Africa.

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND SUPPORTERS xxxv

Prof. J. FREDERICK McCuRDY (Oriental Languages, U. of Toronto).

A. C. MACDONALD, F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.Soc., F.I.inst, Melbourne.

J. A. MURRAY MACDONALD, M.A., M.P., London.

Sir JOHN MACDONELL, C.B., LL.D, M.A. (International Law, U. of London).

Prof. J. S. MACKENZIE (Philosophy, U. College, Cardiff).

HENRY ELLIOT MALDEN, M.A., London, Hon. Sec. Royal Historical Society.

JOSEPH MALINS, J.P., Birmingham, Grand Chief Templar for England of the

International Order of Good Templars. ALFRED MANGENA, of Zululand, Barrister, Pretoria. HENRY COLLEY MARCH, M.D., F.R.A.I., Dorchester.

Rev. JOHN TURNER MARSHALL, M.A., D.D., Manchester, President Baptist Church. R. H. MARTEN, M.D., F.R.A.I., Adelaide, S. Australia. H. W. MASSINGHAM, London, Editor of the Nation. F. JAMES MATHESON, London.

The Most Rev. S.PRiTCHARDMATHESON,D.D.,Archbishopof Ruperts Land,Canada. The Rt. Rev. JOHN EDWARD MERCER, D.D., Bishop of Tasmania. J. C. MiLLlNGTON, M.A., London.

P. CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., London, Sec. Zoological Soc. Prof. WILLIAM MITCHELL (Philosophy, U. of Adelaide). The Rev. J. S. MOFFAT, C.M.G., Cape Town, late South African Missionary aad

Resident Magistrate.

The Rt. Rev. HERBERT JAMES MOLONY, D.D., Bishop in Chekiang, China. E. D. MOREL, London. FELIX MOSCHELES, London, Chairman of International Arbitration and Peace

Association, Member of the International Peace Bureau. The Rt. Rev. H. CARR GLYN MOULE, D.D., Bishop of Durham. The Rt. Rev. W. ROBERT MOUNSEY, Bishop of Labuan and Sarawak. CHARLES S. MYERS, M.A., M.D.,$z.V. (Experimental Psychology,^, of Cambridge). The Rt. Rev. SAMUEL TARRATT NEVILL, D.D., Bishop of Dunedin and Primate

of New Zealand.

H. W. NEVINSON, War Correspondent, London.

Prof. REYNOLD ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, LittD. (Persian, U. of Cambridge). Prof. L. OPPENHEIM, M.A., LL.D. (International Law, U. of Cambridge). ERNEST PARKE, J.P., London, Editor of the Morning Leader. CHARLES PARTRIDGE, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S., District Commissioner in S. Nigeria, Prof. A. MELVILLE PATERSON, M.D., F.R.A.I. (Anatomy, U. of Liverpool). FRANCIS JOHN PAYNE, London, Hon. Gen. Sec. Buddhist Society of Great Britain

and Ireland, Editor of the Buddhist Review. The Rt. Rev. JOHN PERCIVAL, D.D., Bishop of Hereford. J. S. R. PHILLIPS, Leeds, Editor of the Yorkshire Post.

The Rt. Rev. W. CYPRIAN PINKHAM, D.D., D.C.L., Bishop of Calgary, Canada. Capt. D. V. PIRIE, M.P., Member of the Inter-Parliamentary Council. Prof. THOMAS POWEL, M.A. (Celtic, U. College of Cardiff). The PRESIDENT Gold Coast Aborigines Society, Cape Coast Castle, W. Africa. The Rt. Rev. H. M. C. E. PRICE, Bishop in Fuhkien, S. China. Miss B. PULLEN-BURRY, F.R.A.I., Croydon. ERNEST G. RAVENSTEIN, Ph.D., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.I., London. Col. HERBERT EDWARD RAWSON, C.B., York, late Imperial Representative Natal

Native Affairs Commission.

Prof. WILLIAM RIDGEWAY, M.A., D.Sc., President Royal Anthropological Insti- tute (Archceology, U. of Cambridge). The Most Rev. JAMES ROBERTSON, D.D., Prestonkirk, Moderator of the General

Assembly of the Church of Scotland.

W. C. F. ROBERTSON, Secretary Native Affairs, Gold Coast. WILLIAM ROTHENSTEIN, Artist, London. M. EUGENE ROUILLARD, Publicist, Quebec. The Hon. ADOLPHE B. ROUTHIER, Judge of the Court of Admiralty at Quebec

(International Law, U. of Laval).

Sir EDWARD R. RUSSELL, Liverpool, Editor of the Liverpool Daily Post. JOHN RUSSELL, M.A., London. SAMUEL SACOOM, Axim, Gold Coast, W. Africa.

S;r FREDERICK R. ST. JOHN, K.C.M.G., Shanklin, late Minister Plenipotentiary. C. W. SALEEBY, M.D., F.R.S.E., London. The Hon. JOHN MENSAH SARBAH, Cape Coast Castle, W. Africa.

xxxvi UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

The Hon. Sir FRANCIS C. SCANLEN, K.C.M.G., Salisbury, Rhodesia, late Adminis- trator of Rhodesia.

F. C. S. SCHILLER, M.A., D.Sc. (Philosophy, U. of Oxford).

OLIVE SCHREINER, Author, Cape Colony.

C. P. SCOTT, J.P., Manchester, Editor of the Manchester Guardian.

Rev. THOMAS G. SELBY, Missionary and Traveller in China, Bromley, Kent.

CHARLES G. SELIGMANN, M.D., F.R.A.I., London.

Sir HENRY SETON-KARR, C.M.G., J.P., London.

H. W. SETON-KARR, F.R.G.S., F.R.A.I., London.

FRANK CHARLES SHRUBSALL, M.A., M.D., F.R.A.I., London.

WALTETR W. SKEAT, M.A., F.R.A.I., St. Albans.

J. W. SLAUGHTER, Ph.D., London.

The Rev. Canon F. C. SMITH, Sierra Leone.

The Rt. Rev. W. E. SMYTH, M.A., M.B., Bishop of Lebombo, Lourengo Marques.

Mrs. JULIA F. SOLLY, Cape Colony.

Mrs. SAUL SOLOMON, of Cape Colony, London.

Capt. BOYLE T. SOMERVILLE, R.N., F.R.A.I.,Tenby, S. Wales.

The Hon. Sir R. STOUT, K.C.M.G., Chief Justice of New Zealand, late Premier.

The Rt. Rev. HERBERT TAGWELL, D.D., Bishop in W. Eq. Africa, S. Nigeria.

Prof. F. ROBERT TENNANT, D.D., B.Sc. (Philosophy of Religion, U. of Cambridge).

The Hon. JONATHAN JAMES THOMAS, C.M.G., Unofficial Member of the Legis- lative Council of Serria Leone.

SIMEON CORNELIUS THOMPSON, Old Harbour, Jamaica.

Prof. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.B. (Human Anatomy, U. of Oxford).

BASIL THOMSON, London, late Colonial Service, late Prime Minister of Tonga.

Rev. W. T. TOWNSEND, D.D., late President of National Free Church Council and of United Methodist Church.

Rev. JAMES TRAVIS, Chester, ex-President Primitive Methodist Conference, ex- President National Free Church Council.

The Rt. Rev. A. B. TURNER, D.D., Bishop of Corea.

Prof. E. J. URWICK (Political Economy, King's College, London).

Dr. R. VILLECOURT, Montreal.

Prof. PAUL VINOGRADOFF, M.A., F.B.A., LL.D. (Jurisprudence, U. of Oxford).

Rev. THOMAS A. WALKER, LL.D., Litt.D. (International Law, U. of Cambridge).

GRAHAM WALLAS, M.A., London.

H. G. WELLS, B.Sc., Author, London.

The Rt. Rev. GILBERT WHITE, Bishop of Carpentaria, Queensland.

The Rt. Rev. CECIL WILSON, D.D., Bishop of Melanesia, Norfolk Island.

BERTRAM C. A. WINDLE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.,. President of U. College, Cork.

Sir JAMES S. WINTER, K.C.M.G., K.C., St. John's (Newfoundland), late Speaker, Solicitor-General, Attorney-General, Judge of Supreme Court, and Premier.

Prof. GEORGE M. WRONG (History, U. of Toronto)

ISRAEL ZANGWILL, London, President International Jewish Territorial Organi- sation.

A. E. ZIMMERN, M.A., Surbiton, late Fellow and Tutor of New College, Oxford.

(b) INDIA.*

SYED ABUL AAs, M.A.S., Zemindar and Hon. Magistrate, Bankipur. The Hon. Mr. P. S. SIVASWANY AIYER, C.I.E., Advocate-General, Madras. SIR ARUNDEL T. ARUNDEL, K.C.S.I., Woking, late Member of the Council of the

Viceroy of India.

Hon. AHMAD MUHIUDDIN KHAN BAHADUR, Mylapur, Madras. The Hon. NAWAB SYED MOHAMMED SAHEB BAHADUR, Madras. SURENDRANATH BANERJEE, Calcutta, Editor of Bengalee. Sir DAVID M. BARBOUR, K.C.S.I., K.C.M.G., Crawley Down. Mrs. ANNIE BESANT, Adyar, President of the Theosophical Society. SRISH CHANDRA BISWA, B.A., B.L., Calcutta, Pleader, Editor of Lawyer. BUSSANTA COOMAR BOSE, Pleader, High Court, Calcutta. DIWAN TEK CHAND, B.A., I.C.S., M.R.A.S., Deputy Commissioner in the Punjab,

Revenue Minister, Baroda.

ANANDA K. COOMARASWAMY, D.Sc., F.G.S., F.L.S., Broad Campden. HARRY EVAN AUGUSTE COTTON, London, Editor of India.

* See also Hon. Vice-Presidents and Executive Committee.

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND SUPPORTERS xxxvii

Sir HENRY JOHN STEDMAN COTTON, K.C.S.I., London, late Chief-Commissioner

of Assam.

ISWAS DAS, Advocate, Chief Court, Lahore. The Hon. M. S. DAS, C.I.E., M.A., M.R.A.S., Cuttack, Member of Bengal Legisla-

lative Council.

The Rt. Rev. C. J. FERGUSON DAVIE, D.D., Bishop of Singapore. Sir V. C. DESIKA-CHARRY, B.A., B.L., F.M.U., Judge of the Court of Small Causes,

Madras.

The Hon. H. S. DIKSHIT, B.A., LL.B., Solicitor, Bombay. J. C. DUTT, M.A., B.L., Calcutta.

Prof. S. M. EDWARUES, I.S.S., President Anthropological Society of Bombay. The Rt. Rev. ROLLESTONE S. FYFFE, D.D., Bishop of Rangoon. E. A. GAIT, C.I.E., Simla, Census Commissioner for India. MOHANDAS KARAMCHAND GANDHI, Johannesburg, Barrister-at-Law. Prof. M. A. GHANI, M.A. (English Literature, Islamic College, Lahore). Prof. JOGENDRA CHUNDER CHOSE, M.H., B.L., Bhowanipore, Tagore Prof, of Law,

Pleader High Court, late Member Bengal Legislative Council. The Rt. Rev. CHARLES HOPE GILL, M.A., D.D., Bishop in Travancore and

Cochin.

The Hon. G. K. GOKHALE, C.I.E., Poona, Representative of non-official Members of Bombay Legislature on Viceroy's Legislative Council, late President of Indian Congress.

The Hon. KiSORl LAL GOSWAMI, Rai Bahadur, M.A., B.L., Serampore, India. Dr. A. F. R. HOERNLE, M.A., C.I.E., Oxford. Sir FREDERICK RUSSELL HOGG, K.C.I. E., C.S.I., London, late Director- General

Post Office of India.

Col. Sir THOMAS HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., C.B., D.Sc. Sir THOMAS H. HOLLAND, K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.S., late Director of the Geological Survey of India and President Asiatic Society of Bengal (Geology and Mineralogy, U. of Manchester).

T. HUSAIN, M.A., M.R.A.S., Arabic College, Lucknow. MIRZA HASHEM ISPAHANI, Calcutta.

M. ADINARAYANA IYAH, Rao Bahadur, Retired District Commissioner, Madras. The Hon. V. KRISHNASWAMY IYER, Judge of the High Court, Madras. T. SADASIVA IYER, B.A., M.L., F.I.S., Chief Justice, High Court, Travancore. Sir S. SUBRAMANIA IYER, K.C.I.E., LL.D., Judge of Madras High Court. Sir H. EVAN M. JAMES, K.C.I. E., C.S.I., late Under-Secretary to Government of

Bombay, late Member of Governor-General's Legislative Council. Sir JOHN JARDINE, K.C.I.E., LL.D., M.P., Godalming, late Acting Chief Justice,

Bombay, and Vice-Chancellor University of Bombay. JAMES KENNEDY, I.C.S. (retired), London.

TAW SEIN Ko, M.R.A.S., Office of Superintendent Archaeological Survey, Burma. MANGBSH BAL KOLASKER, M.R.A.S., Barrister, High Court, Bombay. The Hon. SHADI LAL, M.A., B.C.L. (Oxon.), Rai Bahadur, Barrister, Lahore. The Rt. Rev. GEORGE A. LEFROY, D.D., Bishop of Lahore.

Sir FREDERIC S. P. LELY, K.C.I. E., Sevenoaks, late Member of Viceroy's Legis- lative Council and Chief Commissioner Central Provinces. FRANKLIN MARSTON LESLIE, B.A., Solicitor, Calcutta. Sir ROPER LETHBRIDGE, K.C.I.E., M.A., J.P., D.L., Exbourne, late Secretary

Simla Education Commission and Indian Political Agent. Prof. C. S. MAHALANOBIS, B.Sc., F.R.M.S., F.R.S.E., Calcutta University. Prof. D. N. MALLIK, B.A., Sc.D., F.R.S.E., Presidency College, Calcutta. Sir WILLIAM MARKBY, D.C.L., K.C.I.E., Oxford, late Judge of High Court,

Calcutta, late Reader in Indian Law, Oxford.

J. H. MARSHALL, M.A., Director-General of Archaeology for India. B. C. MAZUMDAR, B.A., B.L., M.R.A.S., Vakil High Court, Sambalpur. BHASKARRAO V. MEHTA, M.A., LL.B., M.R.A.S., High Court Pleader, Bombay. R. D. MEHTA, C.I.E., J.P., Calcutta.

S. M. MlTRA, M.R.A.S., London, late Editor of The Deccan Post. Prof. KH. DIL MOHD, M.A. (Mathematics, Islamic College, Lahore). Sir THEODORE MORISON, K.C.I.E., Weybridge, Vice-President of Council of India. BRAJA LAL MUKHERJEE, M.A., M.I.R.S., Attorney- at- Law, Calcutta. PHANIBHUSAN MUKERJI, B.Sc. (London), M.R.A.S., F.C.U., Inspector of Schools, Presidency Division, Bengal.

xxxviii UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

Sir P. N; KRISHNA MURTI, K.C.I.E., Bangalore, late Prime Minister of Mysore

State, late Deputy Commissioner and Judge of High Court. The Hon. C. SANKARAN NAIR, C.I.E., Judge of the High Court, Madras. R: NARASIMHACHAR, M. A., M.R.A.S., Officer in Charge of Archaeological Researches

in Mysore, Bangalore.

Prof. J. W. NEILL (Indian Law, U. of London). Hon. N. SUBBARAO PANTULU, B.A., B.L., Member Imperial Legislative Council

of India.

T. RAMA KRISHNA PILLAI, B.A., F.M.W., F.R.Hist. Society (London), Madras. Lieut.-Colonel JOHN POLLEN, C.I.E., LL.D., London, Hon. Sec. East India

Association, President British Esperanto Association. GUYADHUR PRASAD, Patna, late Member Bengal Legislative Council. SHAIKH ABDUL QADIR, B.A., M.R.A.S., Barrister-at-Law, Lahore. The Hon. IBRAHIM RAHIMTOOLA, C.I.E., Bombay.

Prof. LALA HANS RAJ, Principal of Dayanand Anglo-Vedic College, Lahore. R: RAGHUNATH Row, Diwan Bahadur, C.S.I., Madras Presidency. K. B. RAMANATHAN, M.A., B.L., L.T. (English, Pachaiyappa's College, Madras). C. HAYAVADANA RAO, B.A., B.L., Madras. Sir J. D. REES, K.C.S.I., C.V.O., C.I.E., J.P., London, late Additional Member of

Governor- General of India's Council. Colonel H. RIVETT-CARNAC, C.I.E., F.S.A., Chateau de Rougemont, Switzerland,

Corresponding Member of the Royal Academies of Spain, Sweden, Belgium,

etc.

The Hon. DEVA PRASAD SARVADHIKARY, M.A., B.L., Calcutta. Sir J. GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E., London, late Superintendent and Political Officer

in Southern Shan States. The Hon. KHAN BAHADUR MIAN MUHAMMAD SHAFT, Barrister-at-Law,

Lahore.

Prof. BOHUVALLABHA SHASTRI, Headmaster, Sanskrit College, Calcutta. Prof. PRABHU DUTT SHASTRI, M.A., Lahore. S. N. SlNHA, Barrister-at-Law, Lucknow. R. K. SORABJI, M.A., Barrister-at-law, Officiating Principal, University School of

Law, Allahabad. His Holiness SRI SUMANGALA, Hon. M.R.A.S., Colombo, Ceylon, Chief High

Priest of Adam's Peak, Principal of Vidyodaya Oriental College. P. C. TARAPORE, F.R.G.S., Barrister-at-Law, London. RATAN J. TATA, F.R.A.I., Bombay. Prof. MAUNG TIN TUT, Rangoon College. Prof. SATIS CHANDRA VIDYABHUSANA, M.A.,Ph.D., M.R.A.S. (Sanscrit, Presidency

College, Calcutta).

J. PH. VOGEL, Ph.D., Archaeological Department, Lahore. Lt.-Colonel LAURENCE AUSTINE WADDELL, C.B , C.I.E., LL.D., M.B., F.L.S.,

F.R.A.L, Hastings. Sir DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O., London, late Private

Secretary to Marquess of Dufferin and Marquess of Lansdowne as Viceroys

of India, Member of Institut de Droit International. Sir RAYMOND WEST, K.C.I.E., LL.D., M.A., London, late Member of Bombay

Government, Director of Royal Asiatic Society. The Rt. Rev. Foss WESTCOTT, D.D., Bishop of Chota Nagpore. The Rt. Rev. HENRY WHITEHEAD, D.D., Bishop of Madras. Don M. DE ZILVA WICKREMASINGHE (Tamil and Telugu, U. of Oxford). ABDULLAH YUSUF-ALI, I.C.S., M.A., LL.M., M.R.A.S., Sultanpur.

GREECE.

Prof. S. HADJI SOUCA, Athens. Prof. Dr. CYPARISSOS STEPHANOS, Rector of the University of Athens, 1908-9.

HUNGARY.

Prof. LADISLAS BUZA (International Law, U. of Sa"rospatak).

Prof. Dr. JENO DE CHOLNOKY (Geography, U. of Kolozsvar).

Director F. R. KEMENY, Budapest, Member of the International Peace Bureau.

Dr. MIKLOS KRAL, Budapest.

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND SUPPORTERS xxxix

Prof. GUILLAUME DE LERZ, Ministerial Councillor (International Law, U. of

Budapest).

M. EMILE DE NAGY, Budapest, Deputy, Member of Inter-Parliamentary Council. Prof. Dr. FELIX SOMLO (International Law, U. of KolozsvaY). E. TORDAY, F.R.A.I., London. Prof. Dr. ALEXANDER VUTKOVICH (International Law, U. of Pozsony).

ITALY.

Prof. DIONISIO ANZILOTTI (International Law, U. of Bologna).

Prof. MICHELE BARILLARI (Philosophy of Law, U. of Naples).

Prof. LANFRANCO BELLEGOTTI (International Law, U. of Pisa).

Dr. GINO BERTOLINI, Barrister, Associate International Institute of Sociology.

Prof. Dr. LUIGI BONELLI (Turkish, Persian, Oriental Institute, Naples).

Prof. G. C. BUZZATI, Member of the Institut de Droit International (International Law, U. of Pavia).

Prof. Dr. LUIGI CAPPELLETTI (Anthropology, U. of Ferrara).

Prof. CARNAZZA-AMARI, Senator (International Law, U. of Catania).

Prof. Dr. ENRICO CATELLANI (International Law, U. of Padua).

Prof. ARRIGO CAVAGLIERI (International Law, Higher Institute, Florence).

Prof. GuiDO CAVAGLIERI, Editor of the Rivista Italiana di Sociologia (Law of Administration, U. of Rome).

Prof. P. CHIMIENTI, Deputy, late Under-Secretary of State (Constitutional Law, U. of Cagliari).

Prof. EDOARDO CIMBALI (International Law, U. of Sassari).

Prof. Dr. NAPOLEONE COLAJANNI (Statistics, U. of Naples).

Marquis CHARLES COMPANS, deputy, Member of the Inter-Parliamentary Council.

Prof. Dr. FRANCESCO PAOLO CONTUZZI (International Law, U. of Cagliari).

Prof. ALESSANDRO CORSI (International Law, U. of Pisa).

Prof. AMEDEO CRIVELLUCI (Modern History, U. of Pisa).

Prof. NICOL6 D'ALFONSO (Philosophy, U. of Rome).

Prof. RICCARDO DALLA-VOLTA, Director of the Institute of Social Sciences (Poli- tical Economy, Institute of Social Sciences, Florence).

Prof. IL CONTE AXGELO DEGUBERNATis, President of the International Union for Peace, Director of Oriental School, U. of Rome.

Prof. GIORGIO DEL VECCHIO (Philosophy of Law, U. of Sassari).

Prof. GIULIO DIENA, Associate of the Institut de Droit International (Inter- national Law, U. of Turin).

Prof. DOXATO DON ATI (Constitutional and International Law, U. of Camerino).

Prof. ANTONIO FALCHI (Philosophy of Law, U. of Perugia).

Prof. PROSPERO FEDOZZI (International Law, U. of Genoa).

Prof. GUGLIELMO FERRERO, Turin.

Prof. ENRICO FERRI, Deputy (Criminal Law, U. of Rome).

Prof. PASQUALE FIORE (International Law, U. of Naples).

Prof. C. F. GABBA, Senator, late President of the Institut de Droit International (Philosophy of Law and Civil Law, U. of Pisa).

Baron RAFFAELE GAROFALO, Senator, Attorney General at the Court of Appeal in Venice, President of the International Institute of Sociology.

Prof. SCIPIONE GEMMA (International Law, U. of Siena).

Dr. EDOARDO GIRETTI, Bricherasio, Member of the International Peace Bureau.

Prof. Dr. GlACOMO GK&SSO (History of Treaties and Diplomacy, U. of Genoa).

Prof. ALESSANDRO GROPPALI (Philosophy of Law, U. of Modena).

Prof. IGNAZIO GUIDI, Hon. M.R.A.S., Director of Oriental School, Rome (Hebrew and Semitic Languages, U. of Rome).

Prof. FERDINANDO LAGHI (International Law, U. of Parma).

Prof. Dr. DAVID LEVI-MORENOS, Venice.

Prof. Dr. RIDOLFO Livi, Hon. F.R.A.I. (Anthropology, U. of Rome).

Prof. NOCENTIN7! LODOVICO (Literature of Extreme East, U. of Rome).

Prof. ACHILLE LORIA (Political Economy, U. of Turin).

Dr. MARIO MARINONI, Venice.

Prof. MARIO MARTINI (International Law, U. of Rome).

M. G. DE MARTINO, Senator, President of the Colonial Institute in Rome.

Prof. Dr. GIUSEPPE MAZZARELLA (Ethnology, U. of Catania).

Prof. VINCENZO MICELI (Philosophy of Law, U. of Palermo).

xl UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

Prof. GENNARO MONDAINI, Rome, Lecturer in Colonial History in the R. Istituto Superiore di Studi Commerciali, Coloniali et Attuariali in Rome, and Editor of the Rivista Coloniale.

Prof. Dr. FRANCESCO ORESTANO (Moral Philosophy, U. of Palermo).

Prof. GUISEPPE OTTOLENGHI (International Law, U. of Turin).

Prof. GIUSEPPE VADALA PAPALE (Philosophy of Law, U. of Catania).

Prof. GUIDO PERRI (Japanese, Oriental Institute, Naples).

Prof. Dr. FlLlPPO PORENA (Geography, U. of Naples).

Prof. Ill Conte FRANCESCO L. PULLE (Comparative Philology, U. of Bologna).

Prof. PIETRO RAGNISIO (Ethics, U. of Rome).

Prof. GIUSEPPE RICCHIERI (Geography, Accademia Scientifico-Letteraria, Milan).

Prof. NICCOLO RODOLICO (History, R. Istituto di Scienze Sociali, Florence).

Prof. Dr. GIACINTO ROMANO (Modern History, U. of Pavia).

Prof. GIUSEPPE SALVIOLI ( Philosophy of Law, U. of Naples).

Prof. MICHELANGELO SCHIPA (Modern History, U. of Naples).

Prof. Dr. ANTONIO SCIALOIA (International Law, U. of Siena).

Prof. GIUSEPPE SERGI, Hon. F.R.A.I. (Anthropology, U. of Rome).

Dr. SCIPIO SIGHELE, Florence.

Dr. F. SQUILLACE, Professor at the Brussels Universite Nouvelle.

Prof. A. TAMBURINI, President of the Society of Anthropology of Rome.

Prof. MICHELANGELO VACCARO, Deputy (Philosophy of Law, U. of Rome).

Prof. G. DALLA VEDOVA (Geography, U. of Rome).

Prof. GIOVANNI VIDARI (Moral Philosophy, U. of Pavia).

Prof. PASQUALE VILLARI, Senator (History, Higher Institute, Florence).

JAPAN.

Prof. M. ANESAKI (Philosophy of Religion, U. of Tokio).

Prof. SIDNEY L. GULICK, American Board Mission, Kyoto, Japan.

J. CAREY HALL, M.A., I.S.O., British Consul General, Yokohama, Japan.

Prof. MASAO KAMBO (International Law, U. of Kyoto).

Prof. Dr. GENCHI KATO (Science of Religion, U. of Tokio).

Prof. Dr. RIKIZO NAKASHIMA (Ethics, U. of Tokio).

Prof. SHIGEO SUYEHIRO (History of Politics, U. of Kyoto).

Prof. Dr. TONGO TAKEBE (Sociology, U. of Tokio).

Prof. Dr. TOMERI TANIMOTO (Pedagogy, U. of Kyoto).

Prof. SANJURO TOMONAGA (Philosophy, U. of Kyoto).

MEXICO.

AGUSTIN ARAGON, Editor of the Revista Positiva, Mexico.

M. JOSE M. ARAMENDIA, Mexican Consul, Panama.

Dr. GENARO GARCIA, Director of the National Museum of Archaeology, History,

and Ethnology, Mexico.

M. Lucio T. GUTIERREZ, Engineer, Guadalajara. Dr. PORFIRIO PARRA, Director of Secondary School, Mexico.

NETHERLANDS.

Dr. J. H. ABENDANON, late Director of Public Instruction, Worship and Industry in the Netherlands East Indies, Associate of Institut Colonial International.

Prof. Dr. F. J. DE BOER (Philosophy, U. of Amsterdam).

Prof. Dr. P. D. CHANTEPIE DE LA3AUSSAYE, President Royal Academy of Sciences of Amsterdam (Theology, U. of Leiden).

M. J. T. CREMER, Amsterdam, late Colonial Minister, President of the Nether- lands Society of Commerce, Member of the Institut Colonial International.

Dr. C. TH. VAN DEVENTER, The Hague, Deputy, Member of Institut Colonial International.

Prof. Dr. D. VAN EMBDEN (Economics and Statistics, U. of Amsterdam).

Dr. P. H. EYKMAN, The Hague, Director of the Foundation for the Promotion of Internationalism.

Dr. S. BAART DE LA FAILLE, The Hague, Member International Peace Bureau.

Prof. Dr. M. TH. HOUTSMA, Hon. M.R.A.S. (Semitic Languages, U. of Utrecht).

Prof. H. KERN, Hon. M.R.A.S., late Professor of Sanskrit in Leiden University.

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND SUPPORTERS xli

Prof. J. DE LOUTER, Associate of Institut de Droit International (International

Law, U. of Utrecht). M. E. MORESCO, The Hague, late Government Secretary of Dutch Indies,

Lecturer at the Dutch Indies Academy of Colonial Administration, Associate

Institut Colonial International.

Prof. A. W. NlEUWENHUlS (Ethnography, IT. of Leiden). Prof. Dr. C. SNOUCK-HURGRONJE, Councillor of the Colonial Office, Member of

the Institut Colonial International (Arabic and Islam, U. of Leyden). Prof. Dr. A. A. H. STRUYCHEN (International Law, U. of Amsterdam).

NICARAGUA. M. JULIO ARJONA, Nicaraguan Consul, Panama.

NORWAY.

Prof. Dr. BREDO v. MUNTHE AF MORGENSTIERNE (Law and Economics, U. of Christiania).

Prof. Dr. CHRISTEN COLLIN (Modern Literature, U. of Christiania).

M. JOHN LUND, late President of the Norwegian Parliament, Vice-President of the Nobel Committee.

Prof. FRIDTJOF NANSEN (Oceanography, U. of Christiania).

Prof. Dr. YNGVAR NIELSEN (Ethnography, U. of Christiania).

Prof. FREDRIK STANG, Member of the Norwegian Committee of the Inter- Parliamentary Union (Law, U. of Christiania).

PERSIA.

M. AGHA MOAYED-OL-ESLAM, Calcutta. M. HADJI MIRZA YAHYA, Teheran.

PERU. M. EULOGIO DELGADO, President Lima Geographical Society.

PORTUGAL,

Prof. CONDE DE FELGUEIRAS (Economic Legislation, U. of Coimbra).

Dr. JoAo DE PAIVA, President of the Commercial Tribunal in Lisbon, Member of the Council of the Inter-Parliamentary Union, President of the Parliamentary Peace Group, President of the Portuguese Peace Association.

Dr. JOSE DA SILVA PESSANHA, Lisbon (History of Art, School of Art).

Prof. RUY ENNES ULRICH (Colonial Administration, U. of Coimbra).

ROUMANIA.

M. CHARLES GR. LAHOVARY, Bucharest, late Deputy, Secretary of the Roumanian

Inter-Parliamentary Group.

Prof. S. MEHEDINTI (Geography, U. of Bucharest). Prof. P. MlSSlR (International Law, U. of Jassy). Prof. C. THIRON (Medicine, U. of Jassy). Prof. VALERIAN URSIANU, Senator, Dean of Faculty of Law (International Law,

U. of Bucharest). Prof. A. D. XENOPOL (History, U. of Jassy).

RUSSIA.

Prof. D. ANOUTCHINE, President of the Societe Imperiale des Amis des Sciences Naturelles, d'Anthropologie et d'Ethnographie (Geography and Ethnography, U. of Moscow).

M. H. ARAKELIAN, Tiflis, Member of the Russian Geographical Society and of the Paris Asiatic Society.

tM. G. DEKANOZI, Montpellier, of Georgia, late Editor of Sakhartsvelo.

Prof Dr. O. EICHELMANN, Conseiller d'Etat actuel (International Law, U. of Kieff).

Prof. VLADIMIR E. GRABAR (International Law, U. of Dorpat).

Prof. RAFAEL KARSTEN (Comparative Religion, U. of Helsingfors).

Prof. P. KAZANSKY, Dean of Faculty of Law (International Law, U. of Odessa).

Prof. N. LANGE (Philosophy. U. of Odessa).

xlii UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

Prof. Baron BORIS "&QI&K (International Law, U. of St. Petersburg).

M. JACQUES Novicow, Odessa, late Vice-President of the International Institute

of Sociology, Member of the International Peace Bureau. Prof. MICHEL SOBOLEFF (Political Economy -, U. of Tomsk). M. TSERETHELI, London, of Georgia. Prof. Dr. RICHARD WEINBERG, St. Petersburg (Anatomy, Imperial Medical

College for Women).

Prof. ALEXANDER YASTCHENKO (International Law, U. of Dorpat). Dr. Louis L. ZAMENHOF, Warsaw, Author of the international language Esperanto.

SERVIA. Prof. MILETA NOVAKOVITCH (International Law, U. of Belgrade).

SPAIN.

Prof. Dr. MANUEL TORRES CAMPOS, Member of the Institute of International

Law (International Law, U. of Granada).

Prof. GONZALO FERNANDEZ CORDOVA (International Law, U. of Valladolid). EDUARDO SANZ Y ESCARTIN, Senator, Secretary Royal Academy of Moral and

Political Sciences, Madrid.

SALVADOR CABEZA LEON (International Law, U. of Santiago). JOSE GASCON Y MARIN (International Law, U. of Saragossa). Prof. Dr. MANUEL SALES Y NEVVE (Sociology, U. of Madrid). Prof. ANICETO SELA (Vice-Rector and International Law, U. of Oviedo).

SWEDEN.

Dr. ERNST BECKMAN, Deputy, Member of the Inter- Parliamentary Council.

Baron BONDE, Eriesberg, Deputy, President of the Swedish Committee of the Inter-Parliamentary Union.

J. BROOMEE, Deputy, Member Swedish Committee of Inter-Parliamentary Union.

Prof. Dr. PONTUS ERLAND FAHLBECK, Senator (Economics, U. of Lund).

Baron Louis DE GEER, Kristiansand, Senator, Member of the Swedish Com- mittee of the Inter- Parliamentary Union.

Prof. Dr. RUDOLF KJELLEN (Staatswissenschaften, U. of Goteborg).

Prof. Dr. PER EFRAIM LILJEQUIST (Practical Philosophy, U. of Lund).

Dr. N. A. NILSSON, Orebro, Member of the International Peace Bureau.

Prof. Dr. OTTO NORDENSKJOLD (Geography, U. of Goteborg).

Prof. Dr. VITALIS NORSTROM (Philosophy, U. of Goteborg).

M. K. H. GEZ. VON SCHEELE, D.D., Ph.D., LL.D., Deputy, Bishop of Gothland, Member of the Swedish Committee of the Inter-Parliamentary Union.

Prof. Dr. GUSTAF F. STEFFEN (Sociology, U. of Goteborg).

EDVARD WAVRINSKY, Stockholm, Deputy, Member of Inter-Parliamentary Council, Chief of International Order of Good Templars.

SWITZERLAND.

Prof. Dr. EDOUARD BEGUELIN (International Law, U. of Neuchatel).

Prof. D. ALFRED BERTHOLET, General Secretary of the International Congresses of the History of Religions (Theology, U. of Basle).

Prof. Dr. JEAN BRUNHES, Rector Fribourg University (Geography, U. of Fribourg).

Dr. JULES DUCOMMUN, Berne, Treasurer of the International Peace Bureau.

Prof. Dr. Fr. W. FOERSTER (Pedagogy, U. of Zurich).

Prof. Dr. HANS VON FRISCH (International Law, U. of Basle).

Prof. FERDINAND GENTET (International Law, U. of Geneva).

Dr. ALBERT GOBAT, Member of the National Council, Member of the Inter- Parliamentary Council, and Director and Member of the International Peace Bureau, Nobel Prize Laureate.

Prof. Dr. EDUARD MULLER HESS (Philosophy, U. of Berne).

Prof. Dr. HARRY HOLLATZ (International Law, U. of Neuchatel).

Prof. CHARLES KNAPP, Conservator of Ethnographical Museum (Geography, U. of Neuchatel).

Prof. Dr. J. KOLLMAN, Hon. F.R.A.I. (Anatomy, U. of Basle).

Prof. Dr. U. LAMPERT (International Law, U. of Fribourg).

Prof. ALBERT LECLERE (Philosophy, U. of Berne).

GUSTAV MAIER, Zurich, Author and Traveller.

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND SUPPORTERS xliii

Prof. Dr. RUDOLF MARTIN, Hon. Y^.k.\. (Anthropology, U. of Zurich).

Prof. Dr. ANDRE MERCIER, Associate of the Institut de Droit International

(Criminal and International Law, U. of Lausanne). Prof. MAURICE MILLIOUD (Philosophy, U. of Lausanne). Prof. Dr. LUDWIG STEIN (Philosophy, U. of Berne). Prof. Dr. ALBERT TEICHMANN (International Law, U. of Basle). Profc Dr. HANS T. WEHRLI (Geography and Ethnography, U. of Zurich).

TURKEY.

HOWARD T. BLISS, President Syrian Protestant College, Beyrouth.

M. GARABET HAGOPIAN, M.R.A.S., London, Professor of Oriental Languages.

ANTONIUS J. MANASSEH, B.Sc., M.D., Beyrout.

M. RECHID SAFVET BEY, First Secrretay to the Turkish Embassay at Teheran.

KHALIL SARKIS, Editor " Lissan-Ul-Hal," Beyrout.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

Prof. Dr. EPHRAIM D. ADAMS (History, Stanford U.).

Prof. GEORGE BURTON ADAMS (History, Yale U.).

Miss JANE ADDAMS, Hull House, Chicago.

Prof. FELIX ADLER, Theodore Roosevelt Professor in Berlin, 1908-9 (Political and Social Ethics, Columbia U.).

Prof. W. H. ALLISON (History, Bryn Mawr College).

Prof. Dr. CLARENCE W. ALVORD '(History, U. of Illinois).

Prof. CHARLES M.ANDREWS (American Colonial History, Yale U.).

Prof. CHARLES ARBUTHNOT (Economics, Western Reserve U.).

Prof. CHARLES M. BAKEWELL (Philosophy, Yale U.).

Prof. EMILY GREENE BALCH (Sociology, Wellesley College).

Prof. JAMES MARK BALDWIN, Ph.D., D.Sc., LL.D. (Philosophy, John Hopkins U.).

Governor the Hon. S. E. BALDWIN, LL.D. (International Law, Yale U.).

Prof. EARL BARNES, Philadelphia.

RICHARD BARTHOLDT, Member of the House of Representatives, Washington.

Prof. Dr. JOHN SPENCER BASSETT (History, Smith College, Northampton).

Prof. Rev. HARLAN P. BEACH, M.A., F.R.G.S. (Chinese and Theory and Practice of Missions, Yale U.).

WILLIAM S. BENNET, Washington, U.S. House of Representatives, Immigration Commissioner.

Prof. G. H. BLAKESLEE (History, Clark U.).

Prof. MAURICE BLOOMFIELD (Comparative Philology, Johns Hopkins U.).

Prof. FRANZ BOAS (Anthropology, Columbia U.).

Prof. HERBERT E. EOLTO^ (American History, Stanford U.).

Prof. HENRY E. BOURNE (History, Western Reserve U.).

Prof. JAMES H. BREASTED (Egyptology, U. of Chicago).

Prof. JULIAN P. BRETZ (American History, Cornell U.)

Prof. DAVID J. BREWER, Justice Supreme Court of the United States (International Law, U. of Washington).

JOHN GRAHAM BROOKS, New York, Author.

Prof. CARL D. BUCK (Sanscrit and Comparative Philology, U. of Chicago).

Prof. HOWARD W. CALDWELL, Ph.B., A.M. (American History, U. of Nebraska).

Prof. MARY W. CALKINS (Philosophy, Wellesley College, Mass.).

Mrs. CARRIE CHAPMAN CATT, New York, President of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance.

Prof. ALEXANDER F. CHAMBERLAIN (Anthropology, Clark U.).

CHARLES W. CHESNUTT, Cleveland, Ohio.

Prof. JOHN BATES CLARK (Political Economy, Columbia U.).

Prof. GEORGE A. COE, Ph.D., LL.D., President of the Religious Education Asso- ciation, Union Theological Seminary, N.Y.

Prof. CHARLES H. COOLEY (Sociology, U. of Michigan).

Prof. ARTHUR L. CROSS (History, U. of Michigan).

Prof. JAMES ELBERT CUTLER, Ph.D. (Sociology, Western Reserve U.).

Prof. ARTHUR ERNEST DAVIES, B.D. (Philosophy, Ohio State U.).

Prof. EDWARD H. DAVIS, S.B. (Economics, Purdue U.).

Prof. JAMES QUAYLE DEALEY (Social and Political Science, Brown U.).

Prof. GILBERT W. DENISTON (Political Science, U. of Southern California).

xliv UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

Prof. Dr. ALFRED L. P. DENNIS (History, U. of Wisconsin).

Prof. JOHN DEWEY (Philosophy, Columbia U.).

Prof. WILLIAM E. DODD (American History, U. of Chicago).

Prof. GEORGE A. DORSEY, Ph.D., LL.D. (Anthropology, U. of Chicago).

Prof. EARLE W. Dow (History, U. of Michigan).

Prof. GARRETT DROPPERS (Economics, Williams College).

Prof. W. E. BURGHARDT DuBoiS (Economics and History, Atlanta U.).

Prof. Dr. D. SHAW DUNCAN (History, U. of Denver).

Prof. GEORGE M. DUTCHER, Ph.D. (History, Wesleyan U., Middletown).

Rev. CALEB SAMUEL S. DUTTON, M.A., Brooklyn.

Prof. SAMUEL T. DUTTON, Secretary of New York Peace Society (Columbia U.).

Prof. EDWIN LEE EARP, Ph.D. (Sociology, Drew Theological Seminary, Madison).

Brigadier-General CLARENCE R. EDWARDS, U.S. Army, Chief of the Bureau of Insular Affairs, War Department, Washington.

Prof. CHARLES A. ELLWOOD (Sociology, U. of Missouri).

Prof. Dr. LAWRENCE B. EVANS (History, Tufts College, Mass.).

Prof. WALTER GOODNOW EVERETT (Philosophy, Brown U.).

Prof. H. P. FAIRCHILD (Economics and Sociology, Bowdoin College, Brunswick).

Prof. W. H. P. FAUNCE, President Brown University.

Prof. FRANK A. FETTER (Economics, Cornell U.).

Prof. J.WALTER FEWKES, Ph.D., President Anthropological Society of Washington.

JOHN H. FINLEY, Ph.D., LL.D., President College of the City of New York.

Prof. CARL RUSSELL FISH (History, U. of Wisconsin).

Prof. IRVING FISHER (Political Economy, Yale U.).

Prof. Dr. ALEXANDER C. FLICK (European History, Syracuse U.).

Prof. GUY S. FORD (Modern European History, U. of Illinois).

Prof. KUNO FRANCKE, LL.D. (History of German Culture, Harvard U.).

Prof. Dr. JOHN FRYER (Oriental Languages and Literature, U. of California).

Prof. HERBERT P. GALLINGER (History, Amherst College).

Prof. GEORGE P. GARRISSON (American History, U. of Texas).

Prof. FRANKLIN H. GIDDINGS, LL.D. (Sociology, Columbia U.).

EDWIN GINN, Boston, Founder of the International School of Peace.

Prof. J. PAUL GOODE (Geography, U. of Chicago).

Major-General AW. GREELY, Washington, Explorer, Member of the International Colonial Institute.

The Hon. JOHN P. GREEN, ex-Judge, ex-Senator, Barrister, Cleveland.

Prof. CHARLES NOBLE GREGORY, M.A., LL.D., Chairman of Standing Com- mittee on International Law of American Bar Association (Dean of College of Law, International Law, U. of Iowa).

ARCHIBALD H. GRIMKE, President of the American Negro Academy.

Dr. Louis GROSSMANN, Rabbi (Ethics, Hebrew Union College).

Prof. Dr. EDWIN A. GROSVENOR (International Law, Amherst College).

Prof. J. E. HAGERTY (Sociology, Ohio State U.)

Prof. THOMAS C. HALL (Christian Ethics, Union Theological Seminary, N.Y.).

CHARLES THOMAS HALLINAN, Chicago.

Prof. LEWIS H. HANEY (Economics, U. of Michigan).

Prof. EDWARD GARY HAYES (Sociology, U. of Illinois).

Prof. AMY HEWES (Sociology, Mount Holyoke College, Mass.).

Prof. HOMER C. HOCKETT (American History, Ohio State U.).

HAMILTON HOLT, Managing-Editor of " The Independent," N.Y.

Prof. HERMAN H. HORNE (Pedagogy, U. of New York).

W. L. HOUSTON, Grand Master of the Grand United Order of Odd-Fellows in America, Washington.

Prof. GEORGE E. HOWARD (Sociology, U. of Nebraska).

Prof. IRA W. HOWERTH (Sociology, U. of Chicago).

W. W. HUSBAND, Secretary of the Immigration Commission, Washington.

Prof. A. V. WILLIAMS JACKSON (Indo-Iranian Languages, Columbia U.).

Prof. EDMUND J. JAMES, President of the University of Illinois.

Prof. ALBERT ERNST JENKS (Anthropology, U. of Minnesota).

Prof. J. W. JENKS, Immigration Commissioner (Political Economy, Cornell U.).

Prof. Dr. A. JOHNSON (History and Political Science, Bowdoin College, Brunswick).

Prof. HENRY JOHNSON (History, Columbia University).

Prof. Dr. ALBERT G. KELLER (Science of Society, Yale U.).

Prof. CARL KELSEY (Sociology, U. of Pennsylvania).

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND SUPPORTERS xlv

Prof. E. W. KEMMERER (Economics, Cornell U.).

Prof. CLYDE L. KING (Economics and Sociology, U. of Colorado).

Prof. Dr. DAVID KlNLEY (Economics, U. of Illinois).

Prof. GEORGE WELLS KNIGHT (American History, Ohio State U.).

Prof. A. L. KROEBER (Anthropology, U. of California).

Prof. CHARLES R. LANMAN (Sanscrit, Harvard U.).

Prof. J. LAWRENCE LAUGHLIN (Political Economy, U. of Chicago).

Mr. U. J. LEDOUX, International School of Peace, Boston, Mass.

Prof. ALFRED HENRY LLOYD (Philosophy, U. of Michigan).

Prof. WILLIAM MACDONALD (American History, Brown U.).

ALFRED W. MARTIN, Associate Leader New York Society for Ethical Culture.

EDWIN D. MEAD, Boston, Member of International Peace Bureau.

Prof. GEORGE H. MEAD (Philosophy, U. of Chicago).

Prof. EDMOND S. MEANY, M.S., M.L. (History, U. of Washington).

Prof. SIDNEY E. MEZES (Philosophy, Austin U.).

Prof. ADOLPH CASPAR MILLER (Political Economy, U. of California).

Prof. MERTON LELAND MILLER, Chief of Ethnological Division, Bureau of

Science, Manilla, Philippines.

Prof HENRY RAYMOND MUSSEY (Economics, Columbia U.). CHARLES P. NEILL, Immigration Commissioner, Washington. Prof. WILLIAM JESSE NEWLIN, M.A. (Philosophy, Amherst College). Prof. H. A. OVERSTREET (Philosophy, U. of California). FRANK C. PARTRIDGE, Law Office, Proctor, Vermont.

CHARLES PEABODY, Ph.D., F.R.A.I., Peabody Museum, Harvard University. Prof. GEORGE F. PEABODY, New York.

Rev. Prof. ISMAR J. PERITZ, Ph.D. (Semitic Languages, Syracuse U.). Prof. RALPH B. PERRY (Philosophy, Harvard U.).

Prof. ULRICH B. PHILLIPS (History and Political Science, U. of Louisiana). Prof. W. B. PlLLSBURY (Philosophy, U. of Michigan). Prof. F. W. PUTNAM, Hon. Curator Peabody Museum of American Archaeology

and Ethnology at Harvard University.

Prof. SAMUEL NICHOLAS REEP, M.A. (Sociology, U. of Minnesota). Prof. OLIVER HUNTINGTON RICHARDSON, Ph.D. (History, U. of Washington). Prof. THOMAS J. RILEY (Sociology, U. of St. Louis).

Prof. ALLAN ROBERTS (History and Political Science, Lafayette College). Prof. E. VAN DYKE ROBINSON (Economics, U. of Minnesota). Prof. Dr. JAMES H. ROBINSON (History, Columbia U.). Prof. JAMES E. LE ROSSIGNOL (Economics, U. of Denver). Prof. Dr. L. S. ROWE (Political Science, U. of Pennsylvania). WILLIAM M. SALTER (Philosophy, U. of Chicago). Prof. WILLIAM A. SCHAPER (Political Science, U. of Minnesota). Dr. WILLIAM J. SCHIEFFLIN, New York. Prof. Louis BERNARD SCHMIDT (History, Iowa State College). Prof. NATHANIEL SCHMIDT (Semitic Literature, Cornell U.). Prof. GEORGE W. SCOTT (International Law, Columbia U.). Prof. W. A. SCOTT (Economics, U. of Wisconsin). Prof. EDWIN R. SELIGMAN (Economics, Columbia U.). Prof. WILLIAM R. SHEPHERD (History, Columbia U.). Prof. ALBION W. SMALL, Editor of the American Journal of Sociology (Dean of

Arts and Literature, Sociology, U. of Chicago). Prof. Dr. HARRISON S. SMALLEY (Economics, U. of Michigan). C. SPRAGUE SMITH, Seal Harbor, Managing-Director Ethical and Social League. Prof. J. RUSSELL SMITH (Geography, U. of Pennsylvania). Prof. SAMUEL G. SMITH (Sociology and Anthropology, M. of Minnesota). Prof. EDWIN D. STARBUCK (Philosophy, U. of Iowa). Prof. E. L. STEVENSON, Ph.D. (History, Rutgers College). Prof. WILLIAM GRAHAM SUMNER (Sociology, Yale U.). Prof. ELLEN BLISS TALBOT (Philosophy, Mount Holyoke College, Mass.). ROBERT H. TERRELL, Judge, Washington. Prof. FRANK THILLY, LL.D. (Philosophy, Cornell U.). Prof. W. I. THOMAS (Sociology, U. of Chicago). Prof. CHARLES F. THWING, President Western Reserve University. Prof. WALTER S. TOWER (Geography, U. of Pennsylvania). Prof. NORMAN MACLAREN TRENHOLME, M.A., Ph.D. (History, U. of Missouri).

xlvi UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

BENJAMIN F. TRUEBLOOD, LL.D., Secretary of the American Peace Society,

Member of the International Peace Bureau.

Prof. EDSON V. TUCKEY (Economics and Sociology, Syracuse U.). Prof. JAMES HAYDEN TUFTS (Philosophy, U. of Chicago). Prof. JOHN MARTIN VINCENT (European History, Johns Hopkins U.). CHARLES D. WALCOTT, President of Washington Academy of Sciences, Vice-

President of National Academy of Sciences, Secretary of Smithsonian Institution- Prof. ULYSSES G. WEATHERLY (Sociology, U. of Indiana). Prof. HUTTON WEBSTER (Social Anthropology, U. of Nebraska). Prof. HERBERT WELCH, D.D., LL.D., President Ohio Wesleyan University. Prof. R. M. WENLEY, Sc.D., Litt.D., LL.D. (Philosophy, U. of Michigan). Prof. WILLIS MASON WEST, M.A. (History, U of Minnesota). Prof. NATHAN WESTON (Economics, U. of Illinois). Prof. GEORGIA L. WHITE (Economics, Smith College, Northampton). The Hon. JAMES GUSTAVUS WHITELEY, late Consui-General Belgian Congo,

Associate of the Institut de Droit International. Prof. ALBERT C. WHITTAKER (Economics, Stanford U.). Prof. BURT G. WILDER, M.D. (Neurology, Cornell U.). Prof. WALTER F. WILLCOX (Political Economy and Statistics, Cornell U.). Prof. FREDERICK WELLS WILLIAMS (Modern Oriental History, Yale U.). Prof. HENRY HORACE WILLIAMS (Philosophy, U. of Carolina). Prof. Dr. CH. C. WILLIAMSON (Economics and Politics, Bryn Mawr College). Prof. W.W. WiLLOUGHBY, Ph.D. (Political Science,]ohns Hopkins U.). Prof. GEORGE GRAFTON WILSON (International Law, Brown U.). Prof. A. P. WINSTON (Economics, Washington, U.). Dr. STEPHEN S. WISE, The Free Synagogue, New York. Prof. JAMES WITHROW (Chemistry, Ohio State, U.).

Prof. THEODORE SALISBURY WOOLSEY, LL.D. (International Law, Yale U.). Prof. ABBOTT YOUNG (Economics, Stanford U.). Prof. CHARLES ZUEBLIN, Boston.

OCCIDENT 'J <^">jQ ORIENT

PAPERS

FIRST SESSION

FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

MEANING OF RACE, TRIBE, NATION

By BRAJENDRANATH SEAL, M.A., Ph.D.,

Principal, Maharajah of Cooch Behar's College, Cooch Behar, India.

IF modern civilisation is distinguished from all other civilisations by its scientific basis, the problems that this civilisation presents must be solved by the methods of Science. The evolution of Uni- versal Humanity through the concourse and conflict of Nationalities and Empires is too vast and complex for the analytical methods of Aristotelian or Machiavellian Politics, the so-called Historical Schools of Montesquieu or Vico, the arbitrary standards of the Law of Nature, or of Nations, or the learned decisions of international jurists. Modern Science, first directed to the conquest of Nature, must now be increasingly applied to the organisation of Society. But, in this process, Science is no longer in the merely physico- chemical, or even in the merely biological plane, but is lifted to the sociological and historical platform. A scientific study of the con- stituent elements and the composition of races and peoples, of their origin and development, and of the forces that govern these, will alone point the way to a settlement of inter-racial claims and conflicts on a sound progressive basis, the solution of many an administrative problem in the composite United States and the heterogeneous British Empire, and even the scope and methods of social legis- lation in every modern State.

Physical Anthropology with its permanent anatomical types, cultural Ethnology with its geographical zones of ethnic culture, the Philosophy of History with its law of three or more stages, have made notable contributions to this end. But their conflicting claims must be harmonised. A synthetic view of Race is possible,

2 UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

only when we consider it not as a statical, but as a dynamical entity, plastic, fluent, growing, with energies not exhaust, but superimposing layer upon layer like the earth, its scene, still subject to the primal forces that have built up the bed-rocks in their order of sequence and distribution. This is the point of view of genetic Anthropology. It will study Race and Racial Types as developing entities, tracing the formation of physical stocks or types as radicles, their growth and transmutation into ethnic cultural units (clans, tribes, peoples), and finally, the course of their evolution into historical nationalities. A study of genetic conditions and causes, of the biological, psychological, sociological forces at work, which have shaped and governed the rise^ growth, and decadence of Races of Man, can alone enable us to guide and control the future evolution of Humanity by conscious selection in intelligent adaptation to the system and procedure of Nature.

Race, Variety, Species. — Physical Anthropology must turn to the » systematists for definitions of these terms. Not that the Systematists are agreed in theory or in practice. The line between " good " and "bad" species remains as uncertain as when Kerner discussed the ques- tion. But by general consensus, such classifications are based on the following considerations : —

(1) Degree of likeness in characters (morphological and physiological);

(2) Degree of stability or constancy of the like characters ;

(3) Degree of fertility of unions within the group as well as outside, after

groups have been tentatively formed by considerations of likeness and stability ; and

(4) Degree of community of blood, descent or kinship.

First, we group together individuals resembling one another with some certain degree of distinctness in one or more characters which are peculiar, i.e., by which such an assemblage is differentiated from allied assemblages. If we then find that the distinctive characters are not stable but more or less readily modifiable, and either (i) that they are not uniformly transmitted to offspring within certain limits of allowable variation, or not so transmitted under some certain change of environment, neither very violent nor very sudden, or (2) that they are definitely known to have been induced by recent change of environment, the assemblage is regarded as a variety (climatic or otherwise). If, again, we find that the peculiar characters, though stable and uniformly transmissible under the above conditions and limitations, are not sufficiently distinct, or " present but small degrees of divergence from those of allied groups," we class the group as a constant variety. Now, when the common and peculiar characters of a group are distinct, stable and transmissible (hereditary) within wide limits of environmental change, it is usually found that the individuals of such a group breed together in a state of nature, and are more

FIRST SESSION 3

or less exclusively fertile among themselves ; in other words, when crossed with individuals of even allied groups, they produce off- spring which are more or less infertile inter se, in the first or the second generation. Such a group may be provisionally regarded as a species. But it is also often found that, within the group, there are certain subordinate aggregates which may be differentiated from one another by the same kind of tests that were employed in forming the group itself, though these traits are present in a markedly inferior degree. In other words, the subordinate aggre- gates are marked off by peculiar distinct hereditary characters, and they show greater fertility in the second, third, and succeeding generations, inter se, than when crossed with other subordinate groups. Such a subordinate group may be said to form a sub- species or race.

* * * * *

Application to Man. — I. Like Characters : Formation of Types. — Essentially unsound are all classifications based on a single character, whether it is the pigmentation of skin, hair, and iris, the texture of hair with shape of transverse section, the nasal index, the cephalic index, or the geometrical varieties of the cranial or the facial form. Nor does it help to employ single characters successively in con- tinued sub-division, e.g., first dividing by hair, sub-dividing by pig- mentation, sub-dividing still by cranial and facial form, or in the reverse order. This dislocates natural affinities, and frustrates a sound serial arrangement.

It is necessary to adopt biometric methods in studying characters and variations, and to find the mean or means by co-ordination and sedation. Averages are apt to be misleading, and conceal the differences of type that may exist in a group, except where very extensive observations have been made under a variety of conditions. The range of variations in a character is as important an index as the character itself, and the variations should be studied, not merely among the adults, but with reference to sex and ontogenetic (includ- ing embryonic) development, as well as to reversion and retrogression. These are of great value in determining the pure stocks in a hetero- geneous mixture as well as racial affinities and distinctions.

We may arrange the types of physical race in several ways —

(i) We may classify them as primary, secondary, tertiary, and so on, but this can not be properly done until the effects of environment and miscegenation have been studied by the biologist, and not by the statistical empiric, as has often been the case. When sufficient data are available, we may represent the formation of the physical types by a modified genealogical tree (with devices for intercrossing and retrogression), or by symbols and formulas analogous to those of organic chemistry (as in arranging isomers, polymers, &c.). But even chemistry is becoming increasingly evolutionary, and the descent of the elements

4 UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

(and their seven or sixteen races), with the position, say, of the helium-argon group, will shortly be discussed as hotly as the affinities of the Mediterranean race.

(2) A second way would be to arrange the types in space (or, more simply, on a plane surface), the distances along different directions marking the degree of affinity as estimated by three (or two) groups of correlated characters (cf. the horizontal and vertical rows of the periodic classification in chemistry).

(3) A third way would be to conceive an ideal type as the goal towards which the normal development of the organism is tending, and to place the actual types round this as a centre, at distances corresponding, more or less, to their approximation to the ideal. The difference between the second and the third method is that while the former is statical, the latter is dynamical. Though the third method is not quite feasible, an occasional application of this test of normal or standard development is a useful corrective.

General Remarks on Morphological Characters. — The morphological characters most useful in distinguishing types of physical race are not necessarily of zoonomic interest. Many of the marks are non- adaptive and useless. As Topiriard notes, the facial angle is a rational character in craniometry, but the nasal index of which no rational (or zoonomic) explanation is available, is far more valuable as a racial mark. Secondary parts best furnish such distinctive traits. Again, most of the morphological distinctions do not connote vitality, or a high or low place in the normal scale of development. The head and the foot do not vary among races according to their order of superiority. A long head (a so-called simian character), or a long foot, is not a characteristic of inferiority. Taking prognathism (the true or sub-nasal prognathism), while all races are prognathous, some of the neolithic European races were less prognathous than modern Europeans (e.g., Parisians); and the Polynesians of the purest blood, and (probably) the Tasmanians come nearer to the white races than the yellow races or the African Negroes (Topinard). As Weisbach remarks, each race has its share of the characteristics of inferiority. As regards the ideal of normal development for the human body, it is disputed whether the infantile or the adult condition of man makes the nearest approach to it. The young of the anthropoid apes and of man are somewhat alike, but the adult in both cases falls away from this, not in the same direction but along collateral lines, the deviation being much greater in the adult ape than in the adult man. On the whole, as Havelock Ellis notes, " the yellow races are nearest to the infantile condition " (in brachycephaly, scanty hair, proportion of trunk and limbs) ; " Negroes and Australians are farthest removed from it (though not always in the direction of the ape); the Caucasian races occupy an intermediate position. In the nose" (and also in the well-developed calves as contrasted with the Negro's spindle-legs) " they are at the farthest remove from the ape ; in the hairy covering they recede from the human and approach the ape. The lowest races

FIRST SESSION 5

are in some respects more highly evolved than the white Caucasian races." From the ensemble of osteological characters, it appears that the Australians, the South Sea Islanders, and the Negritos have affinities to the Pithecanthropus erectus, the Polynesians to the Orang, the Negroes to the Gorilla, the Mongols to the Chimpanzee, and two of the original European types, the Neanderthal man and the Aurignac man, to the Gorilla and the Orang respectively (Klaatsch).

Physiological and Pathological Characters: General Remarks. — The characters relating to metabolism and reproduction are of greater bionomic value than any of the morphological ones. The number of red corpuscles and the amount of haemoglobin in the blood, the pulse- rate, the vital capacity, the muscular strength, the amount of urea in the urine, are different in different races. But they depend in part on the quantity of proteid consumption. This has been conclusively established by clinical researches in India into the metabolism of peoples with a vegetarian diet. Indeed, some of the morphological characters (e.g., pigmentation of skin, hair, and eye, amount and distribution of hairy covering, &c.), are themselves due to physico- chemical processes connected with the metabolism (as well as the secretions) of the organism. The racial differences in muscular force and in vital capacity (as measured by the dynamometer and the spirometer), like those in stature and weight, depend on conditions of nutrition and habitat (including climate), though the costal breathing of civilised as contrasted with the abdominal breathing of uncivilised women has arisen from conventions of dress. The depth and range of the voice also furnish racial characters. In the lower races (as in women), the larynx is less developed than in the higher, and the voice is shriller. Still the Germans are not at the top ; the Tartars appear to have even louder and more powerful voices. Thus sexual selection (if this is the origin), like natural selection, does not always work advantageously for the so-called higher races, nor in all directions.

The resistance to particular local diseases that marks particular races may have been due to the elimination of the more susceptible through that selective mortality, which, in the view of Karl Pearson and Archdall Reid, is the most effective instrument of natural selection among the races of men.

Acclimation appears to depend in part on the quantity of water in the organism, the tropics requiring more water than temperate countries (Kochs). On the other hand, cold climates require more proteid than hot. Pure or primitive stocks are less easily acclimated than civilised (or mixed) stocks ; the latter are more cosmopolitan. Loss of vital energy owing to chemical changes in metabolism, incapacity to resist diseases of bacterial origin (the phagocytes in the

6 UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

blood being without the supply of the requisite opsons), and, finally, sterility or diminishing fertility of the germ-plasm due to changes in the environment, food, and habits of life — these are the circumstances that set a limit to the cosmopolitanism of a race, and baffle successful acclimation and colonisation.

II. Stability of Characters and Type. — Both morphological and physiological characters change with change of environment. The chemical changes due to the new conditions of climate or nutrition act upon the " hormones " and enzymes, stimulate cell-growth, induce changes of form in the somatic tissues, and, sometimes, affecting the germ-plasm, become hereditary. This is not merely in the fungi, algae, flowering plants (Klebs), or in protozoa, sponges, sea-urchins (Roux, Herbst), or in insects (Weismann, Tower, &c.), but also in domesticated animals and in man. The rate of change and the amount vary, being less in pure stocks of long standing and more in mixed or recent stocks.

Evidence is gradually accumulating to show that other morpho- logical characters, e.g., the changes rung on a few simple varieties of geometrical form, in the structure of the hair, the face, the orbits, the nose, the cranium and the pelvis, are not so stable as some physical anthropologists would fain believe. That remarkable osteologkal changes of this description may be induced in mammals &c., by the action of environment, has indeed been long known (e.g., in the niata cattle, the Java ponies, the Gangetic crocodiles, not to mention oysters and crabs). And the recent careful inquiry of Professor Boas into the anatomical characters of United States immigrants, under the direction of the Immigration Committee of Congress, shows that profound changes of head-form (cephalic index) occur under the influence of American environment, in the American-born descendants of immigrants as compared with the foreign-born immigrants of the same races ; that the amount of change in the American-born depends in part on the period of their immigrant mothers' stay in America before their birth ; that the rate of change decreases as this period increases, and finally that the changes make the most divergent types (e.g.t East European Hebrews and Sicilians) converge and approach to a uniform type in this respect. The cephalic index in man, even if it were not otherwise open to dispute as confounding real distinctions of shape, seems to be unstable under special conditions. That the changes of head-form in American-born children are persistent and hereditary under American conditions may be presumed from the fact that they are in the direction of the normal American type. That there may be a reversion with a return to European conditions cannot be urged as an objection against one who denies

FIRST SESSION 7

the racial significance of this cephalic character. The persistence of the Neanderthal type or the Aurignac type, so far as this is a fact, may be due to the operation of similar conditions, or the absence of special modifying agencies, or, in some instances, to atavism, reversion or freaks.

*****

Proto-man. — A proto-human type with primitive characters must be assumed as the starting-point, a generalised type from which all the pure primary stocks of Man may be derived by further differentiation and specialisation along different collateral lines in special environments.

The Proto-man as a more generalised form possessed this (phylogenetic) variability in a greater measure, and his skull, cerebral mass and cerebral convolutions have shown striking changes ; in other words, the evolution of man has been rapid and continuous in the direction in which he differentiated from the anthropoids. For example, the cranial capacity of the gorilla is about 450 c.c. ; of the Pithecanthropus erectus, in Upper Pliocene, about 900 c.c. ; of the Neanderthal man, in middle Pleistocene, about 1,250 c.c. ; and of the Cro-Magnon man of the lower alluvium about 1,500 c.c. The progress was most marked in the earlier stages, and gradually slowed down.

All this cerebral change is the index of a rapid psychic variation- Even in the case of the higher animals, the psychic (and social) characters are of " zoogenic " value, influencing the course of animal evolution and the origin of species among the higher vertebrates (birds and mammals), e.g., through sexual selection, gregarious impulses, instincts of species-preservation, mutual aid and sympathy. It is these psycho-social characters of the organism that chiefly differentiate Man from the animals. They ensure the exercise of that foresight, control, and co-ordination which are the chief marks of bionomic progress. Besides, what is of vital importance, these psycho-social characters (and therefore the Racial types of Man whereof they are constituent elements) are marked by that greater range, variability and plasticity of response (i.e., of the internal factor in organic evolution), which is the con- comitant of all higher and more complex organisation. As such, they furnish some new developments, especially an extending range of wants, and the phenomena of choice and conscious control which condition the operation of natural selection, and determine its direction, though they do not by any means suspend it. Hence it is that no view of civilisation is sound or adequate which considers Race and Racial types statically, and not dynamically as growing, developing, progressive entities.

8 UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

The Social Instinct. — The same struggle for existence which develops the egoistic impulses also develops the ego-altruistic and the altruistic. Social life survives as the best aid to the main- tenance of the individual as well as the species. And the social instincts thus evolved have left their impress on the physical type. It has been held with some plausibility that a developed sociality gave a longer pairing arrangement in the primitive human family, with prolonged human infancy, and that this brought on the more developed brain with the erect position. This sociality manifests itself in sympathy, imitation, play, communicativeness, association, which all spread by the law of surface expansion, i.e., in geometrical progression, by creating new centres of diffusion. All this pre- pared the way for the origin of language.

Psychology of Primitive Peoples. — The scientific anthropologist must beware of one vulgar error on pain of being taken for a caricaturist. The primitive psychical type like the physical differs from ours not by being abnormal or pathological, but only by being undeveloped and rudimentary. The normal movement is from the mind of the ape to that of the civilised man ; and the appearance of any new factor in proto-man or prehistoric man, be it conceptual language or reasoning, religion or art, magic or myth, marriage or property, must be sought, in its origin, along this line of advance, and in the normal experience of the race. Sometimes we have to deal with abnormal or pathological phenomena among primitive or " natural " races, e.g., trance phe- nomena, black magic, cannibalism, revolting puberty rites, orgies, sexual perversions and inversions, &c., just as we find the same in the civilised peoples of to-day ; but then we must analyse them as such. Some of these arise by temporary excess or defect of normal impulses ; and when they survive in the present day, they are not survivals in the true sense, but arise from similar excesses or defects of the same normal impulses in civilised man. Excesses of sensuality, and many superstitions, are of this class. As to the anti-social impulses, it must be remembered that some of them arise in the struggle for existence, and are to that extent normal. Sociality went part passu with egoism. Sympathy within the horde was no doubt of adaptive value, but it was the correlative of antipathy outside the horde, which was equally adaptive at the origin.

But as sociality is ultimately more adaptive or life-maintaining, it has gone on, expanding its circle, and the anti-social impulses have contracted theirs ; the evolution of Man has been, and will be, the evolution of Sociality, within the limits of the complete and free personal life. If, therefore, we find anti-social excesses

FIRST SESSION 9

among savages, they are also in many cases not abnormal but only rudimentary. But there are other phenomena which are abnormal, pathological, implying degenerative transformation of structure or function. Cannibalism, promiscuity, Morgan's con- sanguineous marriage, group-marriage, infanticide, black magic, &c., are of this class. In the first place, they are far outside the line from the ape to the civilised man. The higher apes had already begun to avoid too close in-breeding, and to live in jealously guarded polygynous-family hordes, or pairing families, more or less enduring. And secondly, natural selection would ruthlessly weed out stocks in which such impulses would be normal. It follows, therefore, that, when such phenomena appear, as they undoubtedly do, among savages or primitive folk, they are not part and parcel of their normal physio-psycho-social type, but are phenomena of degeneration or retrogression in those peoples. They are not samples of the normal savage mind, much less of the mind of Proto-man, who was a plastic and progressive being, not arrested, and not decadent, as savages in many cases have come to be in their isolated and inhospitable habitats.

Cultural Race. — This comprehends in intimate inter-dependence :

(1) Grades of material culture with elaboration of useful Arts, and traditions (e.g., those connected with food, fire, shelter, disposal of the dead, fishing, hunting, war, medicinal and other healing, basket and textile weaving, pottery, decoration, mechanical inventions, domestication of animals, pasture, agricul- ture, writing, weights and measures, coins ; — in more or less successive epochs, e.g., the stick-using, eolithic, palaeolithic, mesolithic, neolithic, eneolithic, bronze, and iron ages — with several layers in each age, e.g., the Chellean, Mousterian, Solutrian, Lower and Upper Aurignacian, and Magdalenian epochs of palaeolithic Europe, &c.).

(2) Grades of ethnic culture, with elaboration of social structures, and of customs (the economic, juristic, socio-ceremonial, religious, and political traditions).

The unit of the social structure was the horde, a small polygynous family-horde, rather than a pairing family. Composite structures were produced by genetic multiplication, fission, aggre- gation, coalescence, absorption, assimilation, adoption, initiation, conquest and capture.

The composite social structures that were thus evolved ap- peared in the following order : —

(i) Family groups and possibly local exogamous groups by fission and aggregation; (2) clans, metronymic or patronymic, totemistic or eponymous, exogamous or endogamous, or both, with " beena," or with wife capture, purchase or expropriation ; (3) sometimes, phratries, classes, &c. ; (4) tribes, based on agnatic or female kinship, or cemented by common good and ill, or common vendetta, or common land and water, or participation in the communal land, or adoption into the village community or township as strangers or as servi ; (5) confederacies of tribes, or peoples.

io UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

But all this is composite aggregation of like units by duplication or repetition of parts. In structure as in function a people is a big tribe, a tribe is a big phratry or clan, a clan is a big family- group, a family-group is a big family.

Every one of these groups performed four functions, though not indifferently, or in the same degree.

(1) Economic, by provision of communal food, and communal shelter ;

(2) Socio-ceremonial, at feasts, games, choral dances ;

(3) Juristic, by the inviolable custom of blood-feuds, &c. ; and

(4) Religious in communal worship and propitiation of the common an-

cestors, tribal deities, and jungle or other spirits.

This compound structure is characteristic of low organisms, (e.g., the colonies of the Hydroidea the compound eye, &c.). The units are not sufficiently differentiated, the whole is not sufficiently coherent. The superior aggregate cannot control the ultimate units except through semi-independent intervening media. The jurisdic- tion is particulate. As Morgan observes, the plan of government in the tribal stage deals with individuals through their relations to the gens or clan. Status is all in all, and individuation is only rudimentary. The social acts of the individual, as Hermann Post remarks, are all determined by the assumptions on which his society is based — postulates, social categories, embodied in custom or law. These traditions are quasi-instinctive, and constitute the essential moments of ethnic entity or cultural Race.1

National Race. — The third stage evolves a complex and coherent structure, by redistributing the elements of the previous composite formations. Differentiation of the individual and central coherence go together. In other words, while the individual begins to be differentiated from the family and the clan, the Nation by its central organ, the State, deals with the individual directly, by gradually usurping and annulling all intermediary jurisdictions. Family-groups within clans, and clans within tribes, duplicating structure and function, cannot constitute a nation. The uniformity of the family-clan-tribe-people stage must be broken up.2 The individual units and lower aggregates are more and more differen-

1 If the individual organism is maintained by the balance of hereditary conservation and progressive variation, cultural Race is maintained by the balance of two corresponding capacities, viz., the cumulation of experience in the form of tradition, and modification by new experience and growing wants. As Ratzel points out, the most profound differences among ethnic civilisations arise out of the varying degrees of these two fundamental capacities. But the capacities themselves, like all other bio-sociological characters, are plastic, fluent, developable under suitable conditions and stimuli.

2 Even in this stage there had been a progressive specialisation of functions, more especially in the tribe and the confederacy.

FIRST SESSION n

tiated by division of labour and specialisation of interests. Occupational castes, guilds, classes, corporations, gradually take the place of the older ethnic groups. Personal law based on kinship gives place more and more to territorial law based on allegiance. The coherence thus becomes more effective, more direct Whether the government is vested in one or many, a nation always begins by creating an absolute central authority. In the intermediate feudal stage, the State deals with the individual through his overlord or corporation, but a true national government can only rise on the ruins of the feudal system, by creating an absolute central power.1 Constitutions and constitutionalism are a later growth, effected through the differentiation and separation of the legislative, executive, and judicial functions of this sovereign authority.

Part passu with the increasing variability of response in the individual, which is itself the cause and concomitant of individual emancipation from the family and clan, is developed the increasing variability of the social mind, and the phenomenon of social choice. The customs, traditions, postulates of social .life so long rigidly determined the responses of the social organism, but now these responses show the characteristics of all complex evolution, viz., indefinite variability, deliberative veto, purposive control, rational choice of alternative. These choices, of course, obey the biological law of adaptation and survival of the fittest, but the spontaneous process of natural selection becomes a conscious organised rational selection determined by ideal satisfactions or ends. A nation, then, is a conscious social personality, exercising rational choice as determined by a scheme of ideal ends or values, and having an organ, the State, for announcing and executing its will. Law is nothing but the standing Will of the national Personality, and the old customary now receives its sanction explicitly or implicitly from this Will. All members of a truly National State are integral members of this Composite Personality, but the individual units are themselves Persons, and, therefore, self-determining Wills.

The common membership of the State gradually replaces all the old bonds of common descent or kinship, common religion, common social customs, common personal law, common cultural stock, even a common language. The existence of theocratic codes, servile classes, ethnic disabilities, privileged classes, co-ordinate jurisdictions (ecclesiastical, feudal, municipal), retards the free and normal development of a National Race, and these ethnic survivals disappear in adult nationality.

This centralisation itself makes for decentralisation within the limits of the State paramountcy.

1 E.g., the recent case of Japan.

12 UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

Voluntary associations, companies, corporations (Universities, Inns of Court, Social Reform- Associations, political parties, commercial firms, banks and services unions, trusts, co-operative agencies, &c.) extend this decentralisation within limits of State supervision secured by charters, registrations, and licences. Local self-governments carry the decentralisation still further by delegation of State functions to local bodies. But the sphere and scope of State legislation, in other words, the limits (other than those of Justice) within which the social personality is bound to tolerate and respect the personality of its members in their activities to realise their own schemes of values and ends, is a hyper- constitutional question, and must depend on the free consensus of the members themselves, whether in an explicit form or as implied by continued membership of the State.

With increasing decentralisation, the State with its ally, the Church, ceases to formulate economic, social or domestic standards or values. The individual members, as self-determining Personalities, exercise rational choice, and are determined by ideal ends and values. The National Ideal is now lifted to a higher platform. It no longer competes with the ideals of individuals. It becomes truly a regulative Ideal — the Ideal of harmonising, fulfilling, realising, in each and all of the members, their personal, social, national and cosmic ideals and values.

Political Art, then, consists in the national adaptation of the Environment, both Natural and Social, to the realisation, by the national Personality (which is a regulative moment of every indivi- dual Personality) and in the persons of the individual members themselves, of the highest ideal values, which they choose and pro- pose to themselves as free self-determining agents.

But Nationalism is only a halting stage in the onward march of Humanity. Nationalism, Imperialism, Federationism are world- building forces, working often unconsciously, and in apparent strife, towards the one far-off divine event, a realised Universal Humanity with an organic and organised constitution, superintending as a primum mobile the movements of subordinate members of the World- system, each within its own sphere and orbit. Respecting each National Personality, and each scheme of National values and ideals, Universal Humanity will regulate the conflict of Nations and National Ideals and Values on the immutable foundation of Justice, which is but the conscious formulation of the fundamental bio- sociological law : that every National Personality (like every indivi- dual personality in the Nation) has a right to the realisation of its own ideal ends, satisfactions and values within the limits imposed by the similar rights of others (individualistic Justice), and also a right

FIRST SESSION 13

to co-partnership and co-operation for the common good and common advantage (socialistic Justice), within the limits imposed by the preceding clause.

Such is the fundamental principle of International Jurisprudence. A realised Universal Humanity on this immutable basis is the goal of a Universal Races Congress like this.

Of the various non-political agencies which may be useful in promoting the objects of such a Congress, one or two are noted below : —

(1) The organisation of a World's Humanity League (not an Aborigines Protection Society), with branches, committees, and bureaus in different countries. The chief object should be to promote mutual understanding, among members of different races, peoples, nationalities, of one another's national ideals, social schemes, and regulative world-ideas. Congresses may be held under the auspices of the League in different centres. Thinkers from the East should be regularly invited to explain their own national or racial cultures and standpoints at meetings organised by the different branches in the West ; and vice versa.

(2) The endowment of Professorships of Oriental Civilisation and Culture in Western Universities and Academies, to be held by Orientals from the countries concerned ; and mutatis mutandis in the East (in countries in which European civilisation does not already hold a dominant position). No scheme of national values, ideals, cultures, in one word, world-ideas, will in the present day be dealt with by foreigners, as other than curiosities of an Archaeological Museum (or an Entomological Laboratory).

(3) The publication of an International Journal of Comparative Civilisation, which would serve as a medium for the exchange of international views on economic, domestic, social, religious and political problems of the day from the different national standpoints ; and would also expound the origin and develop- ments of social institutions in the different national histories. The Journal would have for its chief object the application of the biological, sociological, and historical Sciences to the problems of present-day legislation and administration.

(4) Some organised effort, if possible, against the anti-social and anti- humanitarian tendencies of the modern political situation ; such as the colour prejudice, the forcible shutting of the door in the West against the East, with the forcible breaking it open in the East in favour of the West; national chauvinism ; national aggressiveness, and war.

Our motto is Harmony.

[Paper submitted in English.]

ANTHROPOLOGICAL VIEW OF RACE

By Dr. FELIX VON LUSCHAN, Professor of Anthropology in the University of Berlin.

COLOURED people are often described as savage races, but it is com- paratively rare to find any attempt to give a proper definition of " coloured " and " savage."

14 UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

A certain order issued by a European Governor in Africa once stated what Negroes, Arabs, Hindus, Portuguese, Greeks, and other coloured people, had to do on meeting a white man, and in the German Reichstag one of the successors of Bismarck once spoke of the Samoans as a " handful of savages." Again, many books have been written on the differences between races of men, and serious scientists have tried in vain to draw up an exact definition of what really constitutes the difference between savage and civilised races. It is very easy to speak of " Greeks and other coloured people" ; but some assign the ancient Greeks to the group of civilised races, and are so severe in their division as to exclude from that group the ancient Romans as half-barbarians.

The division of mankind into active and passive races is an old one. Since then an attempt was made to put " twilight " races between the " day " races and the " night " races, and the Japanese were included in this group of " Dammerungs-Menschen " — the Japanese, who are now in the van of human civilisation in Asia, and who have, perhaps, saved the mental freedom of Europe at Tshushima and on the battle-fields of Manchuria.

Still weaker and more objectionable is the division as to colour. We now know that colour of skin and hair is only the effect of environment, and that we are fair only because our ancestors lived for thousands, or probably tens of thousands, of years in sunless and foggy countries. Fairness is nothing else but lack of pigment, and our ancestors lost part of their pigment because they did not need it. Just as the Proteus sanguineus and certain beetles became blind in caves, where their eyes were useless, so we poor fair people have to wear dark glasses and gloves when walking on a glacier, and get our skin burned when we expose it unduly to the light of the sun.

It is therefore only natural that certain Indian races and the Singhalese are dark ; but it would be absurd to call them " savage " on that account, as they have an ancient civilisation, and had a noble and refined religion at a time when our own ancestors had a very low standard of life.

Some men say that coloured people are " ugly." They should be reminded that beauty is very relative, and that our own idea of beauty is subject to changes of fashion. We know, too, that artists so refined as the Japanese find our large eyes and our high noses horrid.

It is also said of the primitive races that they are not as cleanly as we are. Those who say this, however, forget the dirt of Eastern Europe, and are ignorant that most primitive men bathe every day? and that the Bantu and many other Africans clean their teeth after every meal for more than half an hour with their msuaki^ while, on the contrary, millions of Europeans never use a tooth-brush.

FIRST SESSION 15

So it is with dress. Ethnography teaches us that primitive man can have a highly developed sense of modesty, though naked, and we all know how immodest one can be in silk and velvet.

The same can be said of the lack of written language. It is true that most primitive men are Analphabets, but so are 90 per cent, of the Russians ; and we know that memory is generally much stronger with the illiterates than with us. It may very well be that the very invention of writing led to a deterioration of our memory.

Most frequently " savages " are accused of being weak in abstract thinking, like children. To show how such opinions originate, I beg to relate a single case lately reported to me by one of my friends. A young colonial officer buys a basket and asks the name of it in the native language. The first native says, " That is of straw " ; another native says that they also make them of rushes. One of the two seemed to have lied, so each of them received twenty-five lashes. A third native is called. He says, " This basket is plaited," and gets twenty-five also. The next native affirms that the basket is nearly new, and gets twenty-five. The next, that he does not know whose basket it is, &c. The final result of this scientific investigation is two hundred lashes ; and the white man writes in his notebook : " These natives here are brutes, not men." The black man says to his friends, " This fellow belong white is not proper in his save box," and thinks it safer to keep at a good distance from him ; and a certain scientist at home gets a splendid illustration of his theory of the poor intellect of savage man and of his weakness in abstract thinking.

I once personally witnessed how a would-be linguist tried to learn Kurdish from a Kurd, with whom he could only just speak by means of a Turkish and French interpreter. He began with one of the famous phrases in Ahn's Grammar, in the style of " my brother's pocketknife is prettier than your mother's prayerbook," and wanted to have it translated into Kurdish. The result was rather poor, and my pseudo-linguist soon gave it up, saying that the Kurds were so stupid that they did not know even their own language. My own private impression was somewhat different, and I took great care afterwards to convince my Kurdish friend that not all Europeans were so silly and impatient as his first interviewer.

In former times it was not so much the mental and material culture of foreign races, as their anatomical qualities, which were taken as the starting-point, in showing their inferiority. Especially in America, before the war, Anthropology (or what they called by that name) was engaged in showing that the Negro, with his black skin, his prognathism, his blubber-lips and his short and

16 UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

broad nose, was no real human being but a domestic animal. How to treat him was the owner's private affair; it was nobody else's business, any more than the treatment of his cattle or horses.

Even to-day there are scientists who claim a separate origin for the various human types, and who link one palaeolithic race to the Gorilla and another (or perhaps the same) to the Orang. The author &i Anthropozoon biblicum goes still further and wants us to believe that the dark races are the descendants of incestuous intercourse between " Aryans " and monkeys. But the great majority of our modern authorities now claim a monogenetic origin for mankind.

So the question of the number of human races has quite lost its raison d'etre, and has become a subject rather of philosophical specu- lation than of scientific research. It is of no more importance now to know how many human races there are than to know how many angels can dance on the point of a needle. Our aim now is to find out how ancient and primitive races developed from others, and how races have changed or evolved through migration and interbreeding.

We do not yet know where the first man began to develop from earlier stages of zoological existence, and we know nothing of his anatomical qualities. The Pithecanthropus erectus from Java was for some time considered to be such a first man or " missing link " ; but he proved to be only an enormous Gibbon. The oldest known remains of real man have been found in Western Europe. They do not show one single trait that is not found in one or other modern skull or skeleton of aboriginal Australians ; even the mandible of Mauer- Heidelberg, primitive as it is, has a typical human dentition. So we shall probably not be far from the truth if we state that the palaeolithic man of Europe was not essentially different from the modern Australian. If we are allowed to draw conclusions as to the soft parts from the qualities of the skeleton, our palaeolithic ancestor had dark skin, dark eyes, and dark, more or less, straight hair. His home was probably in some part of Southern Asia ; but we find similar types even now among the Toala of Celebes and the Veddas of Ceylon. In fact, millions of dark men in India belong to the same stock, and so do all the dark tribes of Afghanistan and Beluchistan.

So we can trace an early and primitive type of mankind from Gibraltar, Moustier, Spy, Neanderthal, Krapina, &c., to Ceylon, Celebes, and Australia. This certainly is a wide area, but every year is now bringing fresh proofs of this direct continuity of a distinct human type from the earliest palaeolithic ages to modern times.

FIRST SESSION 17

The question naturally arises how it is that our Australian brothers have remained for fifty or a hundred thousand years, or longer, in such a primitive state of mental and material culture, while we Europeans have reached the height -of modern civilisation. The answer is not difficult. Australia was isolated from the rest of the world through an early geological catastrophe soon after the immi- gration of palaeolithic man. Every impulse and incentive from without ceased, and human life began to petrify.

It was quite otherwise in Europe and in Western Asia. The thousand advantages of the environment, the broken coastlines, the many islands, the navigable rivers, and especially the constant pass- ing from Asia to Europe and from Europe to Asia and Africa, the ready exchange of inventions and discoveries and acquisitions, the incessant trade and traffic, have made us what we are.

This primitive but uniform human type began to change chiefly in two directions. To the south-west of the line connecting Gibraltar with Australia, man, in some way or other, developed curly and woolly hair, and so became what we now call Protonigritian. We find his descendants in Melanesia and in Africa. The Pygmies form a very old branch of this protonigritic group ; and we find them in South Africa (Bushmen), in many parts of Tropical Africa and of South-Eastern Asia, and even in some islands of the Pacific. We do not know where they became small, whether in their original home or later on, after their dispersion. The first theory is certainly the simpler ; but the second is not without analogy. We know that the Ammonites began to unroll themselves quite independently of each other in distant oceans, but more or less in the same geological period.

On the other side of this line, in Northern Asia, primitive man acquired, during many thousands of years, straight hair and a shorter or broader skull. The modern Chinese and the typical, now nearly extinct, American Indian are at the end of this north-eastern line of development, while the typical Negro represents the south-western end.

We have thus three chief varieties of mankind — the old Indo- European, the African, and the East-Asiatic, all branching off from the same primitive stock, diverging from each other for thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands, of years, but all three forming a com- plete unity, intermarrying in all directions without the slightest decrease of fertility.

From these three varieties came all the different types of modern mankind, generally by local isolation. A very interesting example of such mutation is found in the earliest known inhabitants of Western Asia. This is the land of those extremely narrow and high- arched noses, we generally call Jewish or even Semitic. These

c

i8 UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

remarkable noses, however, do not belong to the Semitic invaders, of whom Abraham is the eponymic hero, but to the pre-Semitic popula- tion which might be called Hittite or Armenoid, as the modern Armenians are their direct descendants.

These old Hittites or Armenoids emigrated in very early times to Europe, where the "Alpine Race" descended from them. In the most out-of-the-way valleys of Savoy, Graubiinden, Tyrol, and Carinthia more than half of the modern population has the head- form and the nose of this second immigration from Asia to Europe, and from the mingling of this short-headed " Alpine Race" with the descendants of the long-headed Palaeolithic or Neanderthal or proto- Australian Race, all the great modern European races have sprung. Only the Turks and the Magyars represent a later immigration from Northern Asia, and of the Magyars in particular we know that they settled in their present home in Hungary only a thousand years ago, and that their grammar is most intimately related to the grammar of the real Turkish languages. Perhaps the Slavonic races also were more or less influenced by later immigrations from Northern Asia.

Thus the European races can only be understood by considering Europe as a small peninsular annexe to ancient Asia, and for the understanding of the non-European races it is necessary to remember that the boundaries of water and land and glaciers have altered immensely in the course of the many hundreds of thousands of years of human existence.

While the first varieties of primitive man were certainly formed and fixed by long isolation, later variations and races were caused by migration and colonisation, as might perhaps best be shown by sketching the anthropology of Africa and of the Pacific Islands.

Just as Madagascar was peopled about 900 or 1000 A.D. by Indonesian colonists, coming from Sumatra, so untold ages ago the first inhabitants of Africa came from a place somewhere in Southern Asia on the great line from Gibraltar to Australia. No skulls or skeletons of these earliest Africans are as yet known, but we may hope to find them sooner or later, as we already now know a good many sites of palaeolithic implements in various parts of Tropical and Southern Africa.

The anatomical qualities of these first Africans will certainly be found to differ little from those of aboriginal Australians ; but in tens or hundreds of thousands of years the palaeolithic African evolved into a real Negro. He exists in two varieties : a tall variety, like the modern Nigritian from the coast of Upper Guinea, and a small one, like the Bushmen and the Pygmies, now known in so many places in Central Africa. But I have already stated that we are as yet quite ignorant of the real home of these small races.

FIRST SESSION 19

To these two oldest elements in Africa was added, ages after- wards, but still in prehistoric times, a third one, the Hamitic. It is descended from the same ancient <( Gibraltar- Australia-line," but was in a higher stage of civilisation. These Hamites had already a greatly refined language, with an admirable grammar, closely related to that of the Semitic and Indo-germanic languages. In Egypt they created, more than six thousand years ago, the marvel- lous civilisation which we now admire as the mother of our own. Ancient Hamitic influences can be traced all through Africa ; in Abyssinia, in Galla-, Somal-, and in Masailand, we find even now Hamitic languages, or at least Hamitic grammar and Hamitic types.

In Central Africa, in the region of the great lakes, we have the Hima and Tusi, generally as chiefs, reigning over Bantu tribes, often with face and figure like those of the old Pharaohs of Egypt. Even in South Africa nearly I per cent, of the actual Bantu population have high and narrow noses, thin lips, and fine, large, and orthog- nathous skulls of the Hamitic type, and all the Hottentot languages and dialects have a pure Hamitic grammar. Also the pastoral habits of many African tribes, their long-horned cattle, their spiral basket-work, &c., are Hamitic, and we can thus trace Hamitic influence from the Nile to the Cape of Good Hope.

In the West of Africa, also, the Hausa and many other Hamitic tribes have been of the greatest importance in the progress of African civilisation and the formation of new tribes.

In later historic times Arabic, Persian, and Indian influences were at work in Eastern Africa. The periodic occurrence of Passat and Monsoon had already led to occasional visits and perhaps even to some colonisation at a very early stage of human history ; the zebu, the goat, and a great many domestic plants, were brought from India to the Swahili coast, and from there to the interior of Africa ; but we do not know when. We know only that Islam came from Arabia comparatively late — Islam that is now the prominent religion throughout vast regions of Africa, and will probably remain so for many centuries to come.

The Mediterranean coast of Africa also has always been open to foreign influences. The Vandals who came to Africa in 429 A.D. certainly had forerunners even in prehistoric times. The trepanning of skulls which was known in the late palaeolithic cave dwellings in France, was performed on the Canary Islands, and is even now found among some tribes in Southern Algeria. The modern pottery of Adamaua shows a close relation to the pottery of the Hallstatt period and of ancient Sardinia, and some modern armlets and bronze daggers in the Western Sudan look as if they might belong

20 UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

to the European Bronze Age. We do not know where the art of casting in bronze (the cire perdue process of the French, the casting with cera perduta of the Italians) had its real origin ; probably it came from Egypt or from Babylonia. We are also ignorant of the way it took in coming from there to Europe and to the Western Sudan, but we see from the prehistoric character of many African bronze daggers, armlets, &c., that the art of casting must have come to Adamaua not later than the sixth century B.C. Six centuries before the historic invasion of the Vandals, Hannibal sent his soldiers from Africa to Europe and from Europe to Africa, and we know that in the early Middle Ages African Mohammedans reigned in Spain for more than five hundred years. Thus there was a constant coming and going between North Africa and Western Europe, and we cannot be astonished to find so many blue eyes among the Berbers of Morocco, and even among the Ful and other tribes in the Sudan.

In fact, the natives of Africa, who were considered not long ago to be a homogeneous mass, now turn out to be in reality a most complicated mixture of quite different elements, the outcome of immigration at different periods and from different parts of the globe.

Not much less complicated is the anthropological structure of

Oceania. Here we have real pygmies, and the Melanesians, who are

very similar to the African negroes with dark curly and often spiral

hair, dark skin, long skull, prognathous face, broad nose, and thick

lips. They are found nearly pure on the Fiji Islands and in some

parts of New Caledonia and in the Solomon Islands and the New

Hebrides. In other parts of the Western Pacific they are more or

less mixed with the old pygmy races and form what are now

generally called the Papuan elements of Oceania. The greatest

possible contrast to these Melanesians and Papuans is found in the

Polynesian type, which is found in its purest form in Tonga and

Samoa, but partly also in the Eastern Group of Polynesia. The real

and pure typical Polynesian has a skin not much darker than that of

many Sicilians or Spaniards ; his hair is dark and straight, the skull

is extremely short, but very broad and high ; the face is orthogna-

thous, the nose narrow, the lips sometimes very thin, never as thick

as those of the Melanesians. Many Polynesians might easily be

taken for full-blooded Europeans ; others, especially some of the

females, resemble types from Indonesia or from Siam and Cambodja,

except that they are, as a rule, much taller than any tribes of South-

Eastern Asia. On the whole it is evident, without any recourse to

linguistics and ethnography, merely by studying their physique that

the Polynesians came from Asia and that they came by way of

FIRST SESSION 21

Indonesia. This is also shown by their cosmogonical system and their eschatology.

These two races, the Melanesians and Polynesians, different from each other as they are, have intermarried on many groups of the Pacific Islands for at least many centuries. On some islands, e.g., in New Zealand, a sort of real mixture of types has taken place, on others the two types have remained quite distinct, so that, in accordance with Mendel's law, always a certain proportion of the people belong to the one, and another proportion to the other type, and only one-half (or less) of the inhabitants have the qualities of both types mixed.

Wherever we try to investigate in this way the natural history of man, we always find inter-connection and migration, often over more than half the circumference of our globe. We can trace Turk languages from the Mediterranean all through Asia to the vicinity of Kamtschatka, and Malayan languages are spoken eastwards as far as Rapanui or Easter Island, ^he ultima Thule of the Pacific ; westward we find the Hova of Madagascar, descendants of old Indonesian colonists who probably came from Sumatra about a thousand years ago, still preserving their type, their Indonesian language, and their old material culture. Hamitic grammar and Hamitic type can be traced right through Africa.

The religions of Buddha and of Christ have each conquered more than 500 millions of men, and Islam spreads from Arabia as far as the West Coast of Africa, and eastward all through Asia, as far as the Indonesian Archipelago. We find carvings in New Ireland that can be traced back to the famous Greek marble representing the rape of Ganymede, and we know that the religious style of Buddhist art goes back to ancient Greece, just as the Japanese No-masks are the direct descendants of the masks in ancient Greek and Roman plays.

In the same way our own domestic animals and plants, our corn and grains, can be traced round the globe, and in a few centuries American plants have spread so universally in Africa, that to the non- botanist they seem to be indigenous in the Dark Continent.

In former times ethnologists used to admire the apparent unity in the direction of the human mind, and to wonder how it was that in all parts of the earth men had similar ideas and ways. Now this " Volkergedanken " theory is nearly abandoned, and we are forced to admit the real unity of mankind. Fair and dark races, long and ' short-headed, intelligent and primitive, all come from one stock. Favourable circumstances and surroundings, especially a good environ- ment, a favourable geographical position, trade and traffic, caused one group to advance more quickly than another, while some groups have remained in a very primitive state of development ; but all are adapted

22 UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

to their surroundings, according to the law of the survival of the fittest.

One type may be more refined, another type may be coarser; but if both are thoroughbred, or what we call "good types," however they may differ, one is not necessarily inferior to the other. In this sense I could once say in one of my University lectures that the only " savages " in Africa are certain white men with " Tropenkoller." I am afraid I owe perhaps to this paradox the honour of being invited to take part in this Congress, and I feel it therefore my duty to declare most formally that I still adhere to my word, and that I am still seriously convinced that certain white men may be on a lower intellectual and moral level than certain coloured Africans. But this is a mere theoretical statement and of little practical value, except for the Colonial Service. In the Colonies, naturally, a white man with a low moral standard will always be a serious danger, not only for the natives, but also for his own nation.

But much greater is the danger to civilised nations by the immigration of coarser or less refined elements. The United States provide a most instructive example of such a danger on account of their twelve millions of coloured people, and we can understand the feeling of racial antagonism that is now directed against immigration from Asia and the immigration of less desirable elements from Eastern Europe. Even in Germany the constant migration of Eastern Slavs into the Western Provinces is regarded as regrettable by people who are not suspected of narrow-mindedness.

It certainly cannot be a matter of indifference to a nation, if great numbers of strangers come into their towns, take lower wages, live on a very low standard of life, and send home the greater part of their income. But far more serious is the question of racial mixture, and I feel sure that this First Universal Races Congress will do a good work, and one that will not be forgotten for centuries to come, if it insists on the necessity of studying this problem on a broad basis.

We all know that a certain admixture of blood has always been of great advantage to a nation. England, France, and Germany are equally distinguished for the great variety of their racial elements. In the case of Italy we know that in ancient times and at the Renaissance Northern " Barbarians " were the leaven in the great advance of art and civilisation ; and even Slavonic immigration has certainly not been without effect on this movement. The marvellous ancient civilisation of Crete, again, seems to have been not quite autochthonous. We know also that the ancient Babylonian civilisation sprang from a mixture of two quite different national and racial elements, and we find a nearly homogeneous population in most parts of Russia, and in

FIRST SESSION 23

the interior of China associated with a somewhat low stage of evolution.

On the other hand, we are all more or less disposed to dislike and despise a mixture of Europeans with the greater part of foreign races. "God created the white man and God created the black man, but the - - created the mulatto," is a very well-known proverb. As a matter of fact, we are absolutely ignorant as to the moral and intellectual qualities of half-castes. It would be absurd to expect from the union of a good-for-nothing European with an equally good-for-nothing black woman, children that march on the heights of humanity, and we know of many half-castes that are absolutely sans reproche ; but we have no good statistics of the qualities of half-castes in comparison with those of their parents.

Meanwhile it may be permitted to anthropology to wish a separate evolution of the " so-called white and the so-called coloured peoples." As yet we know very little about the interesting and complicated psychology of most of the coloured races, and I am seriously convinced that better knowledge will be followed by more and more mutual sympathy ; but racial barriers will never cease to exist, and if ever they should show a tendency to disappear, it will certainly be better to preserve than to obliterate them.

The brotherhood of man is a good thing, but the struggle for life is a far better one. Athens would never have become what it was, without Sparta, and national jealousies and differences, and even the most cruel wars, have ever been the real causes of progress and mental freedom.

As long as man is not born with wings, like the angels, he will remain subject to the eternal laws of Nature, and therefore he will always have to struggle for life and existence. No Hague Con- ferences, no International Tribunals, no international papers and peace societies, and no Esperanto or other international language, will ever be able to abolish war.

The respect due by the white races to other races and by the white races to each other can never be too great, but natural law will never allow racial barriers to fall, and even national boundaries will never cease to exist.

Nations will come and go, but racial and national antagonism will remain ; and this is well, for mankind would become like a herd of sheep, if we were to lose our national ambition and cease to look with pride and delight, not only on our industries and science, but also on our splendid soldiers and our glorious ironclads. Let small-minded people whine about the horrid cost of Dreadnoughts ; as long as, every nation in Europe spends, year after year, much more money on wine, beer, and brandy than on her army and navy, there is no reason to dread our impoverishment by militarism.

24 UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

Si vis pacem, para bellum ; and in reality there is no doubt that we shall be the better able to avoid war, the better we care for our armour. A nation is free only in so far as her own internal affairs are concerned. She has to respect the right of other nations as well as to defend her own, and her vital interests she will, if necessary, defend with blood and iron.1

[Paper submitted in English.']

RACE FROM THE SOCIOLOGICAL STANDPOINT

By ALFRED FOUILLEE, Paris, Member of the Institut de France.

I. IN discussions of the race problem there is one factor of supreme importance which has been so far disregarded — to wit, the opinion or idea which a race has of itself and the influence exerted by this idea. It is a view I have long been contending for, namely, that every idea is the conscious form in which feelings and impulses are cast. Thus every idea contains within it not merely an intellectual act, but also a certain orientation of sensibility and of will. Conse- quently every idea is a force which tends to realise its own object more and more fully. This is true of the idea of race, just as it is true of the idea of nation. Hence we have (i) a certain self-con- sciousness in a race, imparting to each of its members a kind of racial personality ; (2) a tendency to affirm this personality more and more strongly, to oppose it to other racial types and secure its predominance. In other words, the race-idea includes within it a race-consciousness. It is certain, for instance, that a white man shares the idea and the will of his race — a result the more inevitable inasmuch as he has but to open his eyes in order to distinguish white from yellow or black. Frenchmen or Russians may not be able to recognise one another at sight, but there can be no confusing blacks and whites. Colour is a visible and immediate bond between men of white, black, or yellow race. Even among white men certain types lend themselves to easy recognition and the setting up of a tie between men who share certain typical features. Take, for instance, the dark dolichocephalic Arab type, or the dark brachy- cephalic Turkish, and compare either with the fair dolichocephalic English type.

If an ethnic consciousness gives a race greater solidarity and

1 To prevent the last few paragraphs from being misinterpreted, Professor v. Luschan authorises us to state that he regards the desire for a war between Germany and England as " insane or dastardly." — EDITOR.

FIRST SESSION 25

inward unity, it has, on the other hand, the disadvantage of culmi- nating nearly always in an assumption of superiority and, for that very reason, in a feeling of natural hostility. The yellow man thinks himself no less superior to the white than the white man believes himself superior to the yellow. At all events, he believes himself to be very different, and from the conviction of difference to that of enmity there is only a step.

Differences of language and custom — and, above all, of religion — serve to intensify the hostility. All religion is sociological in char- acter, and expresses symbolically the conditions native to the life or progress of a given society. The religion of a race converts it into a huge society animated by the same beliefs and the same aspira- tions. Moreover, all religion is intolerant, and hostile to other reli- gions. It believes itself to be the truth, and thus seeks to universalise that which is only the particular spirit of one race or one nation — e.g., the Jewish spirit, the Christian spirit, the Mahommedan spirit. When, then, the ethnic consciousness becomes at the same time a religious consciousness, the assertion of the individuality of a race implies a counter-assertion to the individuality of other races. It is hidden warfare, passing over at the very first opportunity into open warfare.

II. How, then, are we to war against the force of hatred and division which is inherent in the idea of race when wedded to the idea of religion ? We must fight it by the force of other ideas which contain a different set of feelings and tendencies. These " idees- forces," or motor ideas, are of two kinds : scientific ideas and moral ideas. Just as ethnic and religious ideas are dividing factors, so scientific ideas are conciliatory in tendency. Science recognises no colour line : it is neither white, yellow, nor black, neither Christian nor Mahommedan. When a man of science demonstrates the equality of two triangles, he makes the sides of these triangles coincide ; and no less surely do his geometrical conclusions coincide with that of all other geometricians, be they white, yellow, or black.

Over and above the consciousness of race, nationality, or religion, scientific ideas develop a human and social^ not to say human and cosmic consciousness. Science, then, is the great reconciler, the fruitful germ of universal peace, realising in the world of intelligence the maxim " All in one." By the force that belongs to ideas union tends to pass from the intellect into the heart. Men of science, be their colour white or yellow, hail one another as brothers.

Industrial technique, being the application of science, shares the universal character of science. A railroad, whether Chinese or English, is always a railroad. A telegraph line, Russian or Japanese, is always a telegraph-line. A telephone, whether Turkish or Aus-

26 UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

trian, is always a telephone. Every industrial invention is a manifes- tation of science, truth leaping into obviousness in all its luminous impersonality, and, like the sun, shining equally upon black and white.

Hand in hand with science and industry goes commerce^ another bond between races. Commerce requires a constant increase in the number and speed of the methods of communication, and these bring nations together; and commerce requires, moreover, codes of morality and law which tend to the establishment of moral and legal simi- larities between one race and another — similarities the importance of which is becoming daily more manifest.

Another great link between races and nations, and one which is destined in the future to play a still more important part, is to be found in philosophical ideas. Even in the Middle Ages such ideas were the bond that united Christians, Jews, and Mussulmen. St. Thomas, Averroes, Avicenna, Maimonides paid common homage to Plato and Aristotle. To-day there are many points on which a disciple of Confucius or of Mencius will have small difficulty in coming to an understanding with a disciple of Kant or of Schopen- hauer. Philosophical ideas, even when they seem to divide men by the apparent multiplicity of their systems, yet really unite them in one and the same love of truth, one and the same disinterested inquiry into the heart of things, into the meaning of the ultimate laws of nature and of life. Among all true philosophers the critical spirit and the speculative interest are the same. While all religions are guilty of the two great capital crimes — pride and hatred — the philosopher knows that he knows little or nothing. He delights in contradiction, inasmuch as it reveals to him another aspect of truth which differs from his own. His opponents seem to him at bottom his best friends. He has no inclination whatsoever to kill or burn them. His universal tolerance is not born of a condescending indul- gence for those who differ from him, but of respect for freedom of conscience and of gratitude for efforts which are complementary to his own and for the fresh light which comes to the aid of his own imperfect vision. Nor must it be thought that philosophical ideas, with the new perspective which they open out upon life and the world, are doomed to remain the exclusive possession of a small and select company. Little by little they mingle with the intellectual atmosphere which is the property of us all. The thoughts of men such as Descartes, Voltaire, Rousseau, or Kant float, so to speak, in the very air we breathe. Many humble people who have never even heard these names are unconsciously affected by those philosophical influences which have helped to mould our modern civilisation. Thanks to the world's thinkers, there is something new under the

FIRST SESSION 27

sun ; something new, too, in our human consciousness. Nothing is lost ; all is fruitful and multiplies ; ideas which to all appearance are most abstract end by taking form and dwelling among men. Here we have the true mystery of incarnation.

III. Are we, then, to trust solely to the spontaneous propagation of science, industry, and commerce, and even of art, which is becom- ing more and more cosmopolitan, and of social morality and law, which are constantly bringing greater uniformity into systems of contract and exchange and international relations generally ? Or are we to add unto these things religious propaganda ? I think not. The question is so important for ethnic sociology that it deserves closer attention. I have already said, and it cannot be repeated too often, that nothing divides men more than religious dogmas, each of which excludes absolutely the contrary dogma : sint ut sunt, aut non sint. Our missionaries are psychologists and sociologists who feed themselves on generous illusions. They think that they are going to convert Mahommedans or Buddhists to the beauties of Christianity. They only succeed in making a few isolated converts who are ashamed of their former co-religionists. Too often the missionaries make Christianity hated rather than loved. Moreover, what message have they for those whom they wish to enlighten ? Will not Jehovah seem to a disciple of Confucius just as vindictive as Baal or Moloch ? Will even Jesus Himself seem to a Buddhist altogether an embodi- ment of gentleness when He threatens those who do not share His beliefs with being conserved in fire to all eternity ? Take the story of Adam eating the apple, and thus compelling God to make His Son perish on the cross in order to appease His own wrath. Is it likely that this, from a moral and social point of view, will seem superior to the story of Buddha offering himself to be torn by lions and tigers ? How should the sacrament of the eucharist, which culminates in representing God as consumed in flesh and blood, convert a poor savage for whom a god who allows himself to be eaten will never be a god ? The symbolic and philosophic meaning that may be given to such dogmas (though, for the matter of that, most believers take them literally) escapes and will always continue to escape those whom it is desired to convert. They take hold of the dogma only by its absurd, inhuman, anti-social side, and they do not see why they should betray their race by renouncing its gods for those of a race that is foreign and often hostile.

It is idle, then, to count on religion for bridging over the gulf of race. On the contrary, the different religious beliefs of each race must be respected. If a race wishes to believe in Brahma, Vishnu, and Civa instead of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, it must be allowed to believe in Brahma, Vishnu, and Civa. Religions, through

28 UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

the whole course of history, have too often set nations at variance. If they have produced friendship and union, they have likewise pro- duced discord, hate, and war. There is not a religion which has not, like Lady Macbeth, stains on the hand that all the vast oceans could never wash away.

Moreover, for the sociologist as for the philosopher, there is a violation of right and of the freedom of conscience — there is an actual injustice — in the indiscreet intrusions of preaching missionaries who seek to substitute a foreign for a national fanaticism.

It is an established conclusion of sociology that every religion, however universal it claims to be, has always an ethnic and national basis corresponding to the needs and traditions of a race or nation. It is thus illogical to try and transplant it, either forcibly or through appeal to the imagination, and set it up among nations who already have a religion adapted to their race and nationality. Religion is not an " article of export." Once again, the only universal, the only really " catholic " things, in the Greek sense of the word, are science, philosophy, and morals. It is these things which we must peaceably introduce among races the most distant from our own. It is not the Christian religion which has transformed and will continue to trans- form Japan. It is science and industry. Men of science are to-day the true and only missionaries. The inventors of railroads and tele- graphs have done more to link different races together than all the Francis Xaviers and Ignatius Loyolas. Each new truth discovered is one light more in the firmament that all men gaze at — a light, too, which all, save the blind, can see. It becomes the common heritage of all the races. It fosters in mankind, as we have seen, a common consciousness, a consciousness of man as man.

It is just the same in the realm of pure moral ideas, which are based on the nature of men and things and give expression to the universal conditions of life and progress in society — in other words, of social statics and social dynamics. Try to draw from every religion and every race its whole moral and really social content, and then accept this without troubling about dogmas and particular symbols. In universal religious tolerance, combined with universal morality and science, we have the one great means of establishing mutual racial sympathy. If, notwithstanding, morality itself should vary from one race to another, let us be tolerant of such variations. They will gradually wear away under the influence of mutual friction and of a progressing civilisation which is becoming daily more uniform. Allow the Mahommedans to wed several wives openly and do not yourself wed several secretly. There must be a tolerance in morality no less than in religion and philosophy. Provided that there is no actual attack on other peoples' rights, you should shut your eyes to

FIRST SESSION 29

customs which are not those of your race or country. Wait till science and civilisation have gradually reformed them.

In short, new forces are gaining ground, forces that are working in favour of peace. International life — a product of science, industry, and economic relations — is hardly yet born ; yet it is daily becoming a more and more comprehensive reality, including within its sphere items whose number and importance are steadily increasing. Nor is this common life merely international. Might one not say that it is also inter-ethnic, in the sense of embracing the most diverse races, not only in Europe, but also in America, Asia, and Africa ? Over the whole globe we are witnessing the spread and propagation of ideas that are also forces — motor ideas which are everywhere identical and are drawing very different minds in the same directions.

For the sociologist, there is but one practical means of bringing races together, and that is to diffuse scientific, moral, and social instruc- tion as widely as possible. Instruction of this kind, spread gradually among the different nations, is the one great means of ensuring peace.

As we have shown in our Psychological Sketch of European Nations, it is a historical law that the progress of modern civilisation is marked by a continually growing ascendancy of scientific, social, and therefore intellectual or moral factors, over such as are racial, geographical, and climatic. The advance of science and of industrial invention is transforming, with ever-growing swiftness, the conditions of social life and labour and also the mutual relations of the various classes. No nation can flatter itself with the belief that its pre-eminence will last for ever. None, on the other hand, can be condemned to an incurable decline. Thanks to a universal solidarity, each race profits by the discoveries and experiences of the others. This law of solidarity in social environment is daily asserting itself more strongly against the conditions which favour a native originality due to racial temperament and physical environment.1 As I have already stated elsewhere, it is neither to Anglo-Saxons nor Germans that the future belongs, neither to Greeks nor Latins, neither to Christians nor Buddhists ; but rather to those most qualified by their knowledge, industry, and morality. {Paper submitted in French.~\\

THE PROBLEM OF RACE EQUALITY

By G. S FILLER, Hon. Organiser of the Congress.

"Backward" does not necessarily mean "inferior." — RATZEL.

IT is generally conceded that we should be considerate to all races of

men regardless of their capacities ; but there is equal agreement, and

1 Esquisse psychologique des peuples europcens. — Conclusions.

30 UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

rightly so, that we should be considerate to domesticated animals, for instance. Here, then, is our dilemma, for the most considerate of men, if he is sane, will not treat his horse exactly as he treats his compatriot, e.g., he will not expect both of them to converse, to reflect, to fashion and obey the laws. Accordingly, considerate actions have to be adapted to the nature of the being we have dealings with, and if some races of men should prove to be very decidedly inferior to other races in inherited capacity, it is evident that they would have to be treated apart to a very considerable degree, being excluded, perhaps, from all important functions in the com- munity. This, of course, would not preclude our loving them tenderly and doing everything which conduced to their welfare.

Now, since it is hotly contended that " the Negro is not a human being at all, but merely a different form of ox or ass, and is, therefore, only entitled to such kindness as a merciful man shows to all his cattle," and since this is as warmly contested by the Negroes and other races concerned, it becomes a vital matter to grapple with the problem of race equality. Especially is this important because many races are actually being treated, or even mal-treated, as inferiors, without any strong presumption in favour of the alleged race-inferiority. If to this be added the all-too-ready tendency to regard other races than our own as " inferior races," and to force these into becoming our hewers of wood and drawers of water, it is manifest that there is urgent need for some light to be thrown on the subject.

Moreover, if the brotherhood of man is to become a reality, as poets and prophets have fondly dreamed, and if the great nations of the world, irrespective of race, are to create a World Tribunal and a World Parliament, it is indispensable that the leading varieties of mankind shall be proved substantially equals. A parliament com- posed of human beings very widely differing in capacity is a palpable absurdity, only realisable in Alice in Wonderland. Firmin, seeing the bearing of this, wisely remarks, " Les races, se recon- naissant egales, pourront se respecter et s'aimer " (De VEgalite des Races Humaines, 1885, p. 659).

However, we need not include in our problem every tribe and race whatsoever, but only the vast aggregate of mankind, say, China, Japan, Turkey, Persia, India, Egypt, Siam, the Negro, the American Indian, the Philippino, the Malay, the Maori, and the fair-white and dark-white races. These constitute, perhaps, nine-tenths of the human race. If an insignificant people here and there, say the Veddahs or the Andamanese, the Hottentots or the Dyaks, should be shown to be unquestionably inferior, this would constitute no grave inter-racial problem. The rare exception would prove the rule, and the broad rule would make the reality of the rare exception doubtful.

FIRST SESSION 31

A century ago the issue we are discussing might have been very difficult of approach. Our knowledge of other races was then a negligible quantity, and of most of the important races we had no compelling evidence of higher aptitudes. This is altered now. We know almost intimately the various great peoples, and fortunately there exists to-day a common standard by which we can measure them at least in one respect. This standard is supplied by the University. As a mere matter of theory it is conceivable that not one non-Caucasian should be capable of graduating at a University, and it is even possible to conceive that a number of peoples should not be able to force their way through the elementary school. The data, however, favour no such conclusion, for individuals of all the select races which we have mentioned above have graduated in modern universities and in diverse subjects.1 To appreciate this statement, especially in the light of disparaging remarks to the effect that the facial angle of certain races more nearly approaches that of apes than that of Caucasians, we must remember that not a solitary ape has yet been known to have reached the stage of being able to pass the entrance examination to an infant school or kindergarten. We must agree with Ratzel, who says, " There is only one species of man ; the variations are numerous, but do not go deep."

An objector might argue that the academic member of an inferior race is a shining exception, a freak of nature, and that from his feat nothing can be deduced regarding the average capacity of his race. This theoretical objection can be disposed of in various ways. We might meet it with the irresistible contention that no member of any species departs far from the average, for else a lioness could give birth to a tiger. Or we might, what is more satisfactory, test the objection by the data to hand. For example, of the ten million Negroes in the United States, many are said to be lawyers as well as surgeons and physicians, several thousand have graduated in Universities,2 hundreds of thousands ply trades or have acquired property, and a few, such as Dr. Booker Washington and Professor DuBois, are recognised as men of distinction. 3 Nor is even this a

1 Certain inquiries at European universities where Asiatic and African students are to be found, tend to show that there is no good reason for thinking that they possess less ability than European students.

2 See Prof. W. G. B. DuBois's searching volume, The College-bred Negro.'

3 M. Firmin, a Haitian, a full-blooded Negro, I am informed, has written a highly learned and remarkably judicious and elegant work on the Equality of the Human Races. Another Haitian, of humble and pure descent, but who later became Presi- dent of the Republic of Haiti, General Legitime, has composed a luminous and comprehensive introduction to philosophy. A West Indian of immaculate Negro descent, Dr. Th. Scholes, has issued two excellent treatises on the races question. The Hon. John Mensa Sarbah, a West African, has written with conspicuous ability on the Fanti National Constitution. Many other works of equal worth, composed by Negroes, exist.

32 UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

fair statement of the case. The Negro population of the United States is despised if not downtrodden, largely deprived of elementary education, and lacking, therefore, generally wealth and the corre- sponding opportunities for culture. Manifestly, if we assumed that the Negro race ceased to be thus severely handicapped, the possible number of university graduates among them would materially increase.1 There remains alone the academic argument that under equal conditions the white race might show a greater proportion of professors or graduates, but the figures are wanting to decide this. Suffice it that we cannot speak of exceptions where thousands of graduates are involved.

A final objection might be raised relating to the absence of great men among the Negroes of the United States. They have produced no Shakespeare, no Beethoven, no Plato. Which is perfectly true ; but neither have the teeming millions of the white race of America produced one such towering giant through the centuries. Moreover, the time of the recognition of great men appears to be from about the age of fifty onwards, and altogether only a little over forty years have passed since slavery was abolished in the United States.

Needless to say, what is stated in the preceding paragraphs regarding the capacities of the Negro race — which, according to Sir Harry Johnston, embraces some 150,000,000 souls — holds with increased force of the great Oriental peoples, who can point to complex civilisations and to illustrious sons and daughters.2

We must now examine the contention that man is more than intellect, and that while the various races may be possibly equal on the whole as regards intelligence, they differ much in enterprise, morals, and beauty.

Enterprise is a vague term to define. So far as the qualities of the warrior are in question, these appear to be universal. The Greeks, the Romans, and the Carthaginians were certainly bold and daring. The Egyptians, the Persians, and the Hebrews fought intrepidly. The Middle Ages found Christians, Turks, and Huns, accomplished in the fine art of massacre. Gustav Adolf of Sweden, Frederick the Great, Napoleon, Wellington, splendidly led superb armies. Japan recently showed the world what matchless fighting stuff is to be found in the Far East. And so-called savage tribes- north, south, east, and west — appear to be no whit behind in the matter of dauntless bravery.

1 It might be said that many of the so-called Negro graduates are not full blacks. Since, however, very many of them are, the argument remains unaffected. It should also be noted that "coloured" people are treated precisely as if they were full-blooded.

2 " I consider that your propositions could be abundantly supported by instances taken from India," writes a Civil Servant who occupied for many years a responsible post in India.

FIRST SESSION 33

War, however, is supposed to offer a powerful stimulus, and it is argued that where the stimulus is gentle, it finds some races responding and not others. Inveterate idleness is thus stated to distinguish most non-European races. The Hon. James S. Sherman, Vice-President of the United States, well grasps this nettle. " The Indian," he says, " is naturally indolent, naturally slothful, naturally untidy; he works because he has to work, and primarily he does not differ altogether from the white man in that respect. Mr. Valentin, this morning, very vividly pictured what the Indians were. He said, as you remember, that some drink, some work, and some did not, some saved their money, some provided for their families, and some went to jail. Still / would like to know what single white community in this whole land of ours that description does not cover?" (Report of the Twenty-Seventh Annual Meeting of the Lake Mohonk Conference of Friends of the Indian and other Dependent Peoples, October 20-22, 1909, pp. 80-8 1. Italics are ours.) Vice-President Sherman gives here the happy despatch to a very common fallacy. Man requires an appropriate stimulus to spur him to action — whether it be that of the warrior, the hunter, the shepherd, the peasant, the tradesman, or the scholar, and West and East are at one in this respect. The inhabitants of China and Japan are world-famed for their industriousness, and the populations of Turkey, Persia, and India are also busy bees in the mass. Similarly the Negro and the American Indian in the United States are falling into the habit of what is called work in the West, and primitive peoples generally are as active as the circumstances demand.

Fearlessness and industry may not form dividing lines between the races ; but what of such attributes as initiative, inventiveness, progress ? Historians inform us that in Dante's time the Western methods of agriculture were still those of the ancient Romans, and they further show us that the red-haired Teutons about the beginning of our era, while possessing themselves a civilisation of a most rudi- mentary character, exhibited no desire to emulate the dark-white civilised Romans with whom they came into contact. Should we, then, be justified in concluding from such facts that the European races in general and the Teutonic race in particular are unprogressive races ? Or does this not suggest that complex social conditions determine whether a race shall be pushful, empire-building, inventive, progressive? So far as modern warfare is concerned, Japan ranges now admittedly with the great Western Powers, and in industry and in science this Eastern nation is also taking its place in the front rank. Yesterday, as it were, despotic rule was supposed to hall-mark the East, to-day representative government is clamoured for in the few Oriental countries where it does not exist already. This, too,

D

34 UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

merely repeats the story of Europe's recent emergence from an auto- cratic regime. Taking further into consideration the imposing ancient civilisations of Egypt and Babylon, Persia and Phoenicia, and more especially the magnificent civilisation of China which is responsible for innumerable inventions and discoveries of the highest order, and bearing in mind that every country in the East is at present remodelling its civilisation on Western lines, it is reasonable to suggest that, so far as the spirit of enterprise is concerned, the various races of mankind may be said to be, broadly speaking, dn an equality.

We must now examine another momentous factor, the moral factor. A few decades ago, due partly to unavoidable ignorance and partly to racial and religious prejudice, it was thought that morality was a monopoly of the West. Bret Harte's Ah-Sin was the typical Chinese ; cruelty and prevarication were alleged to be the special prerogative of the Mohammedan ; the less developed types of men were head-hunters, cannibals and shameless ; and self-respect and respect for others were iridescent virtues only to be encountered in Central Europe and the United States. Now, however, that we possess the beautiful Sacred Books of the East in translation, this view has lost almost every vestige of justification, for much in the Chinese, Hindu, Persian, Hebrew, and even Egyptian and Baby- lonian classics is of the profoundest ethical significance.

Coming to moral practice ', travellers of unimpeachable repute have taught us that love of family and country, devotion to friends, succour of those in distress, are not virtues characteristic of any one particular race. Concerning the Chinese the distinguished English missionary and scholar, Dr. Legge, says in a Present-Day Tract, " Take the Chinese people as a whole . . . and there is much about them to like and even to admire. They are cheerful, temperate, industrious, and kindly, and in these respects they will bear a com- parison, perhaps a favourable comparison, with the masses of our own population. ... I found those of them who had any position in society for the most part faithful to their engagements and true to their word. I thought of them better, both morally and socially, when I left them, than when I first went among them, more than thirty years before." And such passages abound in modern works, not only in regard to the doyenne of the nations, but in regard to most non-European peoples.1

Lastly, that there is little to choose in regard to physique, a glance

1 "Among the cleanest — physically and morally — men that I have known have been some of African descent " (Prof. B. G. Wilder, The Brain of the American Negro, 1909). See also the chapter on the truthfulness of the Hindus in Max Miiller's What Can India Teach Us ?

FIRST SESSION 35

at any good modern collection of fair-sized ethnographical photo- graphs will show. It was the old drawings, little more than naYve caricatures, and later the photographs of hideous exceptions, which supplied us with those types of other races that suggest startling race distinctions. Michelet and others have dwelt on the beauty of Haitians, and Firmin, with apparent good reason, thinks that the classic type of beauty is closely bound up with a high state of civilisation, a remark which Schneider (Die Naturvolker, 1885) endorses. Privation and affluence, refinement and degradation, leave their traces on uncivilised and civilised alike.

We are, then, under the necessity of concluding that an impartial investigator would be inclined to look upon the various important peoples of the world as, to all intents and purposes, essentially equals in intellect, enterprise, morality, and physique.

Race prejudice forms a species belonging to a flourishing genus. Prejudices innumerable exist based on callousness, ignorance, mis- understanding, economic rivalry, and, above all, on the fact that our customs are dear to us, but appear ridiculous and perverse to all who do not sympathetically study them. Nation looks down on nation, class on class, religion on religion, sex on sex, and race on race. It is a melancholy spectacle which imaginative insight into the lives and conditions of others should remove.

Considering that the number of race characteristics is legion, it would be embarrassing to assert that they possess a deeper meaning. Every small tribe seems to be the happy possessor of a little army of special characteristics, and one ethnologist actually speaks of five hundred tribes to be found in a radius of as many miles in a certain locality. The American Indians are said to be related to the Tartars, whilst possessing very distinct common traits ; and each of the at present recognised great racial divisions is equally capable of sub- division, and equally merges by degrees into the others. Again, we hear of red-haired, yellow-haired, fair-haired, brown-haired, and black- haired peoples, and we read of frizzly hair, woolly hair, silken hair, as well as of a few tufts of hair on the head in some tribes, and trains of hair trailing on the ground in others. Peoples differ in average height from less than four feet to over six feet. Some of these have very small and others very large eyes, and length of limbs varies considerably. The bodies of some few tribes are richly covered with hair, while others are practically devoid of it. The variations in colour of skin, from pink to yellow, reddish-brown and black-brown, are very conspicuous, and the so-called Caucasian type alone embraces the fair Scandinavian, the dusky Italian, the dark Hindu, and the almost black Fellah. Noses, lips, chins, cheek-bones, jaws, vary prodigiously, and no less facial angle, forehead, and shape of skull.

36 UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

Accordingly the observable physical differences between so-called distinct races must be regarded as incidental on pain of having to assume hundreds of separate origins for the human race. Ratzel truly says : " It may be safely asserted that the study of comparative ethnology in recent years has tended to diminish the weight of the traditionally accepted views of anthropologists as to racial dis- tinctions, and that in any case they afford no support to the view which sees in the so-called lower races of mankind a transition stage from beast to man." *

We commonly judge races nearly as much by their customs as by their physical appearance, almost as if the former fatally depended on the latter. Indeed, anthropologists and travellers often unques- tioningly and unsuspectingly assume that the mental traits of races are innate and fixed, like the tendency to anger or to walking uprightly. Yet a Zulu, for instance, taken from his tribe where he appears to possess innumerable rooted and peculiar customs, very soon loses them nearly all. The American Negro missionaries in Africa find that custom is deeper than physical appearance, since their fellow Negroes in Africa look upon them as Americans rather than as men of their own kith and kin. As one of the Honorary Vice-Presidents of the Congress, the first delegate to the Second Hague Conference of one of the greatest Eastern Empires, convinc- ingly expresses this in a letter to the Congress Executive : " Races show nothing but skin-deep differences. Differences of language, of religion, of manners and customs, are nothing but accidental modalities attendant on the respective historical evolution in the past — in no way sufficiently powerful to efface the sub-stratum common to all humanity, and in no way tending to hinder any co-operative effort in the fulfilment of the mission common to mankind in general."

Is it, then, to be inferred, we may be asked in astonishment, that we should encourage indiscriminate miscegenation, free intermarriage between white, black, and yellow races ? The inference need not be drawn, since we may say that, just as in parts of Europe, for instance, Protestants, Catholics, and Jews live together amicably while yet intermarrying very rarely, so the equality of the human races might be universally acknowledged and yet intermarriage not take place. However, we ought to note that in the West the fairest whites freely intermarry with the darkest whites, and that it is difficult to see why — theoretically at least — any limit should be drawn.

What has been said above regarding the ephemeral importance

1 A comprehensive criticism of works that lay stress on the inequality of races is to be found in Jean Finot's Race Prejudice and in Friedrich Heriz'sModerneRassenthcorien.

FIRST SESSION 37

of racial distinctions embraces, so it appears to the present writer, the bedrock truth which must be ever borne in mind in this contro- versy. The trunk of the elephant, the neck of the giraffe, are some- thing singular in the animal kingdom. Man, too, possesses a unique quality which likewise sharply divides him from sentient beings generally. All other animals are almost altogether guided by individual or gregarious instincts, and their wisdom, natural and acquired, almost completely dies with them. The bee's hive and the ant's nest represent wonderful structures ; but these structures, wherever we meet them, are so strikingly alike that it is evident natural selection and not reason or tradition accounts for them. Only man as a race has a history — a history of speech and writing, a history of architecture and dress, a history of laws, and one of arts and crafts. The individual thought of thousands of brains has, to give a trivial instance, created the safety bicycle, and the collective thought of millions through the ages has built up our complex civili- sation. And this thought is transmitted socially — through home and school education, through public institutions, or through the impos- ing accumulations of science, art, and industry. Except for such social transmission the work of the past would have to be com- menced, Sisyphus-like, all over again by each generation, and the stage of savagery and barbarism would be unending.

Man's social nature distinguishes him from his fellow animals absolutely in that no animal species, however gregarious, is in posses- sion of traditional knowledge collected throughout the length and breadth of thousands of years, and fundamentally in that any attempt to turn an animal into a social being is doomed to fail miserably. To illustrate, the domesticated animals may readily be isolated at birth from their kind with no appreciable consequences to their development, while, on the other hand, a human being thus placed would probably grow up more brutish than a brute. Man's upright attitude, his comparative hairlessness, the place of his thumbs, the size and weight of his brain, are undoubtedly radical differentiae in relation to other animals ; but these in themselves do not constitute him the premier species of the globe. The most hopelessly benighted pigmy in the forests of Central Africa possesses these characteristics nearly in perfection. The social and historical element makes man the civilised being, and it alone accounts for the successive ages of stone, bronze, iron, steam, and electricity.

A theory such as is here propounded ought to remove innu- merable preconceptions from thinking minds. It is a theory which in a very real sense makes all men kin. It discourages inconsiderate pride of race, of sex, of birth, of nation, of class, and of religion. It encourages education, co-operation, science, strenuousness com-

38 UNIVERSAL RACES CONGRESS

bined with modesty, and equal rights and opportunities for all men and women. It puts at its true value the eminently plausible but almost certainly unscientific doctrine that mankind can solely or mainly be improved in the only manner that animals can — i.e., by careful selection or breeding. Above all, it paves the way for national and international concord and co-operation, and for a fair treatment of backward races, subject peoples, and small nations.

In conclusion, the writer of this paper cannot refrain from expressing a fervent hope that the deliberations of this historic Congress may result in a better understanding and a higher appre- ciation of the different peoples on the globe, and may lead to the enactment of beneficent laws as well as to the formation of a powerful public